Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association

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Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association
Traditional Chinese中華會館
Simplified Chinese中华会馆
Alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese中華公所
Simplified Chinese中华公所
Second alternative Chinese name
Chinese六大公司
Literal meaningbig six companies

The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA) is a historical Chinese association established in various parts of the United States and Canada, with large Chinese communities. The association's clientele were Chinese immigrants of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly from eight districts on the west side of the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong, southern China, and their descendants. The latter wave of Chinese immigrants, after 1965, who came from a much wider area of China, did not experience the level of hostilities faced by the pioneers and did not join the CCBA, which greatly lessened its influence.[1]

Names[edit]

In English, the association is also known by other names, such as the Chinese Six Companies in San Francisco,[2] especially when it began in the 19th century; Chong Wa Benevolent Association in Seattle; and United Chinese Society in Honolulu.

In the Western and Midwestern United States as well as Western Canada, 中華會館 is the common Chinese name. In the Eastern United States and Eastern Canada, 中華公所 is the common Chinese name. 中華 means "Chinese" in the context of the Chinese nation (Zhonghua minzu), while both 會館 and 公所 have historically referred to trade associations.

Influence[edit]

Since its organization in the 1850s and formal establishment in 1882 in San Francisco's Chinatown, the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA) has received diverse publicity from American media. Much of the attention often overlooked inherent cultural differences, leading to misunderstanding by much of the American population.[3] This factor, together with increasing anti-Chinese sentiment, hastened the need for an empowered Chinese organization in the US. Thus, the CCBA was formed out of the need for the Chinese to have organized social, political, and economic structures.[3]

The CCBA was set up to help Chinese people relocate and travel to and from the US, including returning bodies of the deceased to China.[4] With many families fragmented between China and across the US, the association also allowed for communal care of the sick or poor.[4] When the association became more prominent and anti-Chinese sentiment increased, the organization also offered legal and physical protection. Physical abuse was not uncommon in Chinatown from racist Americans. Such incidents led to the rise of groups like the tongs, which were noted to have protected the Chinese from abuse by white miners.[4]

The CCBA also exerted political power, becoming authorized to speak on behalf of Chinatown throughout the US.[5] Its board of directors became increasingly powerful, consisting of wealthy merchants and business people.[5] The board had many dealings with local and federal governments, exerting influence in various methods. One was the use of a Caucasian attorney, who was also the spokesperson of the organization, which likely helped reduce pushback.[5]

Through the 1800s, a large portion of Chinese immigrants to California came for the promise of work in the gold mines, and their contribution was integral to the economic boom the state experienced due to the discovery of gold. When this industry declined, the Chinese found other opportunities, such as fishing, food service, farming, and railroad building.[6] Many in the mid-to-late 19th century argued that the influx of Chinese immigrants decreased job availability for American citizens. However, the job competition theory is disputed due to the strong language barrier that forced many Chinese to create their jobs.[7]

San Francisco[edit]

Headquarters of the CCBA (a.k.a. Chinese Six Companies) in San Francisco, on Stockton Street
The KMT maintains offices in some of the Chinatowns of the world, and its United States party headquarters are located in San Francisco's Chinatown, on Stockton Street, directly across from the Chinese Six Companies.

History[edit]

Early officers of San Francisco's Six Companies in traditional Qing dress, with riding jackets over changshan.
Map
[Interactive fullscreen map + nearby articles]
Chinese Six Companies in Chinatown, San Francisco 
  •  Headquarters 
  •  Six Companies 
  •  Later addition 

1
Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (中華會館) headquarters
2
Sam Yup (三邑)
3
Yeong Wo (陽和)
4
Kong Chow (岡州)
5
Ning Yung (寧陽)
6
Hop Wo (合和)
7
Yan Wo (人和)
8
Sue Hing (肇慶)

Upon their arrival during the California gold rush, Chinese immigrants felt the government in Gold Mountain did not protect their interests. To protect and support one another, the Chinese pioneers from the Pearl River Delta formed the Sam Yap and Sze Yup associations in San Francisco's Chinatown in 1851. With more Chinese emigrants from other districts, who spoke different dialects, two more associations formed in 1852 and 1853, followed in 1853 and 1862 by two more splitting off the large Sze Yup association.[3] These organizations became the six most important Chinese district associations in California.[8] The associations had some mutual coordination[9] before the CCBA was established, in 1882.[3][10]

These immigrant organizations were rooted in the Chinese tradition of huiguan (traditional Chinese: 會館; simplified Chinese: 会馆; pinyin: huìguǎn; Jyutping: wui6gun2),[11] viz., support groups for merchants and workers originating from a given area. The vast majority of Chinese in California were from various districts on the west side of the Pearl River Delta, in Guangdong province. Thus, the first huiguan, or ui-kun, as it was locally known[12] in Cantonese San Francisco, the Sam Yap (Chinese: 三邑; pinyin: sānyì; Jyutping: sam1 jap1; lit. 'Three counties') Company, emerged in 1851. It was associated with the Nanhai, Panyu, Shunde, Sanshui, and Xingyun districts.[13] Towards the end of 1851, the Sze Yap (Chinese: 四邑; pinyin: Sìyì; Jyutping: sei3 jap1; lit. 'Four Counties') company of Xinhui, Kaiping, Xinning, and Enping districts was created.[13] This was followed by the Yeong Wo (Chinese: 陽 和) company of Heung-shan, Tung-kun, and Tsang-shing districts, in 1852.[14] In 1853, the Sun On company was formed by Hakka immigrants from Bow On, Chak Tai, Tung Gwoon, and Chu Mui districts;[13] the name of which was changed two times: to Hip Kat association (1860s) and then (1870s onward) Yan Wo (Chinese: 人和) Company. By mid 1853, the South China emigrants had become organized into four regional dialect huiguan[3] -- the four "Ooe-Koons or great Chinese houses" -- covering emigrants from eight Pearl River Delta districts and beyond.[15]

Owing to internal disputes in the large Sze Yup company, the Ning Yeung (Chinese: 寧 陽) company emerged in 1853 and, almost a decade later, the Hop Wo (Chinese: 合 和) company split off in 1862.[3] In 1867, the remnant Sze Yup company was reorganized as the Kong Chow (Chinese: 岡 州) company.[16][17] In this manner the six Chinese companies in San Francisco were formed in the first score years of the gold rush.[12]

Instabilities continued in the next two score years, with many disputes among the numerous emigrants from Sze Yup and some from Sam Yup resulting in almost as many unions as secessions. For example, the Sue Hing (Chinese: 肇慶) company was formed in 1878 by dissidents from the Hop Wo company, was reunited in 1883 only to separate again, and was joined by different dissidents in 1901 and in 1909. By then the CCBA was incorporated; although Sue Hing was its seventh member, the Western media still referred to the CCBA as the Chinese Six Companies.[3]

The Six Companies served as ambassadors of the Qing government, which did not have a consulate in Chinatown until the end of the 1870s, and provided services for arriving Chinese immigrants and workers in San Francisco.[18]: 42  Their early efforts included deterring prostitution in the Chinese community, encouraging Chinese immigrants to lead moral lives, and discouraging excessive Chinese immigration, which was causing hostility towards them.[19] The Six Companies also created a safety net for sick Chinese workers, by lending them money. They opened a Chinese-language school, settled disputes among members, maintained a Chinese census, and helped members send remittances to their home villages through district associations.[20] In 1875, they endorsed the position that continued Chinese immigration caused a general lowering of wages for both whites and Chinese in America.[21]

Immigration in the 1960s[edit]

Though the Six Companies discouraged the continuing immigration of Chinese to the US, the phenomenon persisted. In the 1960s, discrimination began to arise within these Chinese communities. Assimilation of Chinese communities increased through the years, causing a cultural clash between new arrivals and those who were American-born and had assimilated to the culture. Many new Chinese immigrants came to America without savings, as most of their money was spent on transportation to the US. Many immigrant children were also affected by these conditions, having to work when they were not in school, and struggling to learn English. This led to many of the children of new immigrants dropping out and joining gangs that engaged in violence in Chinatown. In 1968, during a human rights commission hearing held in San Francisco, the Wah Ching gang asked for a community clubhouse and a two-year program to help them gain vocational skills and earn high school diplomas. The CCBA advised the commission: "They have not shown that they are sorry or that they will change their ways. They have threatened the community. If you give in to this group, you are only going to have another hundred immigrants come in and have a whole new series of threats and demands."[22]

New York City[edit]

Main article: Chinese Community Center
The CCBA in New York

In New York City, the CCBA was established in 1883. It acts as an umbrella organization for sixty member organizations representing a cross section of New York's Chinese community. They include professional and trade organizations, civic, religious, cultural, and women's groups, and organizations such as the Lin Sing Association.

The CCBA spearheaded the move to form the Chinese Voters Federation in May 2004 to encourage qualified Chinese American citizens to register and vote in the 2004 presidential election.

Immediately following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, the CCBA led an emergency community-wide campaign to raise funds for the victims, a drive that raised more than $500,000 for the American Red Cross Emergency Response Fund. In September 2005, right after the Hurricane Katrina disaster, the CCBA and Sing Tao Daily teamed up and raised $170,000 for the victims.

The CCBA also works with many mainstream organizations to provide services to the Chinese American community, such as the Visiting Nurse Service of New York and the American Cancer Society. In December 2006, the CCBA and the American Red Cross of Greater New York signed a memorandum of understanding to coordinate programs in Chinatown that will help prepare and train the Chinese community for any kind of emergency.

Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association of New England[edit]

The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association of New England, popularly known as CCBA, is a tax-exempt organization established in 1923. Currently with 35 members consisting of family associations and community organizations, the CCBA serves as the umbrella organization for the Chinese communities of New England.

Besides sponsoring activities, the CCBA manages Tai Tung Village and Waterford Place, apartment complexes that provide affordable housing to the Chinese community. Partnering with Chinatown Main Street and other organizations, the CCBA coordinates activities such as the lion dance celebration for the Lunar New Year and the annual August Moon Festival, to attract visitors and to further economic growth in Chinatown; it also hosts dignitary visits to the Chinatown community.

Seattle[edit]

Chong Wa Benevolent Association, Seattle

In Seattle, Washington, the Chong Wa Association was established around 1915.[23]

Vancouver[edit]

Main article: Chinese Benevolent Association of Vancouver

Branches[edit]

CCBA, San Diego
CCBA, Chicago
CCBA, Washington, D.C.

The CCBA has several branches in the United States and Canada, including:[24]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Yuwu Song, ed., Encyclopedia of Chinese-American Relations (McFarland, 2009) pp66-67.
  2. ^ "The Chinese Six Companies at 843 Stockton St. Known by the Chinese as the 'Chung Wa Woey Koon' [Cantonese]". cuny.edu. American Social History Project, CUNY. 2021. Retrieved October 10, 2021. The [Chinese] Six Companies, organized in the 1850s and formally established in 1882, were an amalgamation of the six most important Chinese organizations, or "district associations," in California at the time: the Sam Yup, Yeung Wo, Kong Chow, Ning Yuen, Hop Wo, and Yan Wo.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Lai, Him Mark. "Historical Development of the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association/Huiguan System" (PDF). The Him Mark Lai Digital Archive. Chinese Historical Society of America. Retrieved February 10, 2016.
  4. ^ a b c "The Six Companies – FoundSF". www.foundsf.org. Retrieved November 30, 2017.
  5. ^ a b c "San Francisco Chinatown: Chinese in California". bancroft.berkeley.edu. Archived from the original on August 27, 2003. Retrieved November 30, 2017.
  6. ^ "Chinese Six Companies". Immigration to the United States. Retrieved November 30, 2017.
  7. ^ "Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association". www.ccbanyc.org. Retrieved November 30, 2017.
  8. ^ [Yung et al. 2006] p. 23.
  9. ^ "A Memorial…", p. 18–23 in [Yung et al. 2006], is an example of a document jointly issued by the Six Companies as early as 1876.
  10. ^ "The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association/Huiguan System", p. 62 in Him Mark Lai, Becoming Chinese American, Rowman Altamira (2004). ISBN 0-7591-0458-1.
  11. ^ "Huiguan". Retrieved February 2, 2018.
  12. ^ a b Loomis, Rev. A. W. (September 1868). "The six Chinese Companies". Overland Monthly. 1 (3): 221–227.
  13. ^ a b c Qin, Yucheng. The Diplomacy of Nationalism: the Six Companies and China's Policy toward Exclusion. University of Hawaii Press, 2009
  14. ^ Speer, Rev. William (1870). The Oldest and the Newest Empire. Chapter 19: The Chinese Companies in California. National Publishing. p. 554-571. New Rules of the Yeung-Wo Ui-Kun (1854)
  15. ^ "Chinese Liberality". cdnc.ucr.edu. Sacramento Daily Union, Volume 6, Number 830, 21 November 1853. Retrieved January 22, 2024. Tong Achick, on behalf of the four Ooe-Koons, or great Chinese houses of San Francisco,
  16. ^ "The Kong Chow Beneficial Society, a reorganization of the old See Yup Asylum Association, incorporated to-day". cdnc.ucr.edu. Sacramento Daily Union, Volume 34, Number 5146, September 25, 1867. Retrieved January 22, 2024.
  17. ^ "Chinese Benevolent Society". cdnc.ucr.edu. Daily Alta California, Volume 19, Number 6402, September 25, 1867. Retrieved January 22, 2024. There was filed to-day the certificate of election of the trustees of the Kong Chow (See Yup) Beneficial Society,
  18. ^ Hansen, Lawrence Douglas Taylor (Spring 2006). "The Chinese Six Companies of San Francisco and the Smuggling of Chinese Immigrants across the U.S.-Mexico Border, 1882–1930". Journal of the Southwest. 48 (1): 37–61. JSTOR 40170313. Retrieved January 22, 2024.
  19. ^ [Yung et al. 2006] p. 20 et. seq.
  20. ^ Chang, Iris (2003). The Chinese in America: a narrative history. New York: Viking.
  21. ^ [Yung et al. 2006] p. 25.
  22. ^ Chang, Iris (2004). The Chinese in America. United States of America: Penguin Books. pp. 261–70. ISBN 9780142004173.
  23. ^ Chong Wa Association (Seattle) on vrseattle.com
  24. ^ The C.C.B.A. in North America

Further reading[edit]

  • Delehanty, Randolph. Chinatown Introduction: a Tale of Four Cities, Chronicle Books, sfgate.com. Undated, accessed online October 17, 2007.
  • Lai, David Chuen-Yan. "The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association in Victoria: Its Origins and Functions". BC Studies: The British Columbian Quarterly 15 (1972): 53–67. Online
  • Lai, Him Mark. "Historical development of the Chinese consolidated benevolent association/huiguan system". Chinese America: History and Perspectives 1 (1987): 13–51.
  • Liu, Ying, and Tina Bebbington. "The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association and China: 1884–1922 – A Selective Guide of Primary Sources". (2012) online.
  • Qin, Yucheng (2009). The Diplomacy of Nationalism: The Six Companies and China's Policy toward Exclusion. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 9780824832742.
  • "Documents of the Chinese Six Companies Pertaining to Immigration", p. 17–25 (especially "A Memorial from Representative Chinamen in America", p. 18–23) in Judy Yung, Gordon H. Chang, and Him Mark Lai (compilers and editors), Chinese American Voices, University of California Press (2006). ISBN 0-520-24310-2.

External links[edit]

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