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Aisha

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For other uses, see Aisha (given name) and Aisha (disambiguation).

Aisha
Mother of the Believers
عائشة
Aisha.svg
Aisha's name in Islamic calligraphy
Bornc. 613/614
Diedc. July 678 (aged 63–65)
Medina, Umayyad Caliphate
Resting placeAl-Baqi Cemetery, Medina
Spouse(s)Muhammad (m. 620; died 632)
Parent(s)Abu Bakr (father)
Umm Ruman (mother)
Family

Aisha (Arabic: عائشة بنت أبي بكر, romanized: ʿĀʾisha bint Abī Bakr; /ˈɑːiːʃɑː/,[1][2] also US: /-ʃə, aɪˈiːʃə/,[3] UK: /ɑːˈ(j)iːʃə/;[4] c. 613/614 – July 678) was Muhammad's third and youngest wife.[5][6] In Islamic writings, her name is thus often prefixed by the title "Mother of the Believers" (Arabic: أمّ المؤمنين, romanized: ʾumm al-muʾminīn), referring to the description of Muhammad's wives in the Qur'an.[7][8][9]

Little is known about the early life of Aisha. A preponderance of classical sources converge on Aisha being six or seven years old at the time of her marriage, and nine at the consummation; her age has become a source of ideological friction in modern times.[10][11] Aisha had an important role in early Islamic history, both during Muhammad's life and after his death. In Sunni tradition, Aisha is portrayed as scholarly and inquisitive. She contributed to the spread of Muhammad's message and served the Muslim community for 44 years after his death.[12] She is also known for narrating 2,210 hadiths,[13] not just on matters related to Muhammad's private life, but also on topics such as inheritance, pilgrimage, and eschatology.[14] Her intellect and knowledge in various subjects, including poetry and medicine, were highly praised by early luminaries such as al-Zuhri and her student Urwa ibn al-Zubayr.[14]

Her father, Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), became the first caliph to succeed Muhammad, and after two years was succeeded by Umar (r. 634–644). During the time of the third caliph Uthman (r. 644–656), Aisha had a leading part in the opposition that grew against him, though she did not agree either with those responsible for his assassination or with the party of Ali (r. 656–661).[15] During the reign of Ali, she wanted to avenge Uthman's death, which she attempted to do in the Battle of the Camel. She participated in the battle by giving speeches and leading troops on the back of her camel. She ended up losing the battle, but her involvement and determination left a lasting impression.[9] Because of her involvement in this battle, Shia Muslims have a generally negative view of Aisha. Afterward, she lived quietly in Medina for more than twenty years, took no part in politics, became reconciled to Ali and did not oppose caliph Mu'awiya (r. 661–680).[15]

Sources

Biographical information on Muhammad and his companions are recorded in hadiths and sira. Hadiths were initially narrated orally before being collected and compiled by Hadith scholars.[16] In Islam, hadiths are regarded as fundamental sources second only to the Quran.[17] However, the historical reliability of both hadith and sira has been a topic of debate among some academic circles.[18][19][20]

Early life

Aisha was born in Mecca in c. 613 or early 614.[21][22] She was the daughter of Abu Bakr and Umm Ruman, two of Muhammad's most trusted companions.[5] No sources offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years.[23][24]

Marriage to Muhammad

The idea to match Aisha with Muhammad was suggested by Khawlah bint Hakim after the death of Muhammad's first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid.[25][26] After this, the previous agreement regarding the marriage of Aisha with Jubayr ibn Mut'im was put aside by common consent. Abu Bakr was uncertain at first "as to the propriety or even legality of marrying his daughter to his 'brother'." Muhammad responded that they were brothers only in religion.[26] Orientalist William Montgomery Watt suggests that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr;[15] the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.[27]

All extant hadiths agree that Aisha was married to Muhammad in Mecca but the marriage was consummated only in the month of Shawwal after his hijrah to Medina (April 623).[28] Some classical sources have Aisha speak of the marriage to have been executed in Medina itself without referencing to any delay.[28]

Age at time of marriage

See also: Criticism of Muhammad § Aisha

Islamic sources of the classical era list Aisha's age at the time of her marriage as six or seven and nine or ten at its consummation. In a hadith from Sahih al-Bukhari, Aisha recollects having been married at seven years of age. Ibn Sa'd's biography holds her age at the time of marriage as between six and seven, and gives her age at consummation to be nine, while Ibn Hisham's biography of Muhammad suggests she may have been ten years old at consummation. Al-Tabari notes that Aisha stayed with her parents after the marriage, which was consummated only at nine years of age, but elsewhere seems to suggest that she was born during the Jahiliyyah (before 610 C.E), which would translate to an age of about twelve or more at marriage.[29][30]

The subject was of considerable interest for early Sunni Muslim biographers, as her pre-menarcheal status held implications about her virginity and virtue.[10] The claim of being the only virgin wife of Muhammad may also have been used to position her over Muhammad’s other wives, who were widows and divorcees.[29]

Aisha's marriage to Muhammad is presented as ordinary in Islamic literature, fitting the norms of Arabian tribes in that era,[31] and the topic "generated no significant reflection" among later Muslims. It generally went unremarked-upon by early Orientalist writers, who viewed Muslim Arabs as engaging in exotic and unusual sexual practices that tended to "diverge from Western Christian norms". From the mid-20th century, pointed criticisms of Muhammad's marriage to Aisha began to appear, as did works contextualizing the marriage as appropriate for its place and time.[10]

The growing criticism directed against the marriage of Muhammad and Aisha, combined with exposure to Western norms, prompted some writers to recalculate Aisha’s age at marriage altogether. Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad, an Egyptian novelist, put forward an argument that Aisha was in her teens at the time of the marriage’s consummation,[32] while the prominent Lahore Ahmadi figure Muhammad Ali published similar works.[33] These works proved influential among both Arab and South Asian Muslims, though more conservative Muslim scholars objected to their arguments, which broke with the sharia consensus on marriageable age and bypassed the well-regarded sahih hadith collections to focus on information gleaned from other sources.[32] Kecia Ali describes attempts to prove the "real age" of Aisha at the time of her marriage as an exercise in futility.[10]

Personal life

Relationship with Muhammad

Muhammad and Aisha freeing the daughter of a tribal chief

In most Muslim traditions, Khadija bint Khuwaylid is described as Muhammad's most beloved and favored wife; Sunni tradition places Aisha as second only to Khadija.[34][35][36][37][38] There are several hadiths, or stories or sayings of Muhammad, that support this belief. One relates that when a companion asked Muhammad, "who is the person you love most in the world?" he responded, "Aisha."[39] Others relate that Muhammad built Aisha's apartment so that her door opened directly into the mosque,[40][41] and that she was the only woman with whom Muhammad received revelations.[42][43] They bathed in the same water and he prayed while she lay stretched out in front of him.[44]

Various traditions reveal the mutual affection between Muhammad and Aisha. He would often just sit and watch her and her friends play with dolls, and on occasion, he would even join them.[45][46][47] Additionally, they were close enough that each was able to discern the mood of the other, as many stories relate.[48][49] It is also important to note that there exists evidence that Muhammad did not view himself as entirely superior to Aisha, at least not enough to prevent Aisha from speaking her mind, even at the risk of angering Muhammad. On one such instance, Muhammad's "announcement of a revelation permitting him to enter into marriages disallowed to other men drew from her [Aisha] the retort, 'It seems to me your Lord hastens to satisfy your desire!'"[50] Furthermore, Muhammad and Aisha had a strong intellectual relationship.[51] Muhammad valued her keen memory and intelligence and so instructed his companions to draw some of their religious practices from her.[52][53]

Aisha was jealous of Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad's first wife, saying, "I did not feel jealous of any of the wives of the Prophet as much as I did of Khadija though I did not see her, the Prophet used to mention her very often, and whenever he slaughtered a sheep, he would cut its parts and send them to the women friends of Khadija. When I sometimes said to him, "(You treat Khadija in such a way) as if there is no woman on earth except Khadija," he would say, "Khadija was such-and-such, and from her I had children."[54]

Aisha and Muhammad would often have races with each other, "I had a race with him (the Prophet) and I outstripped him on my feet. When I became fleshy, (again) I raced with him (the Prophet) and he outstripped me. He said: This is for that outstripping."[55]

Accusation of adultery

The story of the accusation of adultery levied against Aisha, also known as the Event of Ifk,[56] can be traced to surah (chapter) An-Nur of the Qur'an. As the story goes, Aisha left her howdah in order to search for a missing necklace. Her slaves mounted the howdah and prepared it for travel without noticing any difference in weight without Aisha's presence. Hence the caravan accidentally departed without her. She remained at the camp until the next morning, when Safwan ibn al-Mu‘attal, a nomad and member of Muhammad's army, found her and brought her back to Muhammad at the army's next camp. Rumours that Aisha and Safwan had committed adultery were spread, particularly by Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, Hassan ibn Thabit, Mistah ibn Uthatha and Hammanah bint Jahsh (sister of Zaynab bint Jahsh, another of Muhammad's wives). Usama ibn Zayd, son of Zayd ibn Harithah, defended Aisha's reputation; while Ali ibn Abi Talib advised: "Women are plentiful, and you can easily change one for another." Muhammad came to speak directly with Aisha about the rumours. He was still sitting in her house when he announced that he had received a revelation from God confirming Aisha's innocence. Surah 24 details the Islamic laws and punishment regarding adultery and slander. Aisha's accusers were subjected to punishments of 80 lashes.[57]

Story of the honey

After the daily Asr prayer, Muhammad would visit each of his wives' apartments to inquire about their well-being. Muhammad was just in the amount of time he spent with them and attention he gave to them.[58] Once, Muhammad's fifth wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh, received some honey from a relative which Muhammad took a particular liking to. As a result, every time Zaynab offered some of this honey to him he would spend a long time in her apartment. This did not sit well with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar.

Hafsa and I decided that when the Prophet entered upon either of us, she would say, "I smell in you the bad smell of Maghafir (a bad smelling raisin). Have you eaten Maghafir?" When he entered upon one of us, she said that to him. He replied (to her), "No, but I have drunk honey in the house of Zainab bint Jahsh, and I will never drink it again."..."But I have drunk honey." Hisham said: It also meant his saying, "I will not drink anymore, and I have taken an oath, so do not inform anybody of that'

— Sahih al-Bukhari 6691

Soon after this event, Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God. Some Sunni commentators on the Qur'an sometimes give this story as the "occasion of revelation" for At-Tahrim, which opens with the following verses:

O Prophet! Why do you prohibit ˹yourself˺ from what Allah has made lawful to you, seeking to please your wives? And Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
Allah has already ordained for you ˹believers˺ the way to absolve yourselves from your oaths. For Allah is your Guardian. And He is the All-Knowing, All-Wise.

— Surah At-Tahrim 66:1-2

Word spread to the small Muslim community that Muhammad's wives were speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month. ‘Umar, Hafsa's father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled; they agreed to "speak correct and courteous words"[59] and to focus on the afterlife.[60]

Death of Muhammad

Aisha remained Muhammad's favorite wife throughout his life. When he became ill and suspected that he was probably going to die, he began to ask his wives whose apartment he was to stay in next. They eventually figured out that he was trying to determine when he was due with Aisha, and they then allowed him to retire there. He remained in Aisha's apartment until his death, and his last breath was taken as he lay in the arms of Aisha, his second most beloved wife.[61][62][63][64][65]

Political career

After Muhammad's death, which ended Aisha and Muhammad's 14-year-long marriage, Aisha lived fifty more years in and around Medina. Much of her time was spent learning and acquiring knowledge of the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad. Aisha was one of three wives (the other two being Hafsa bint Umar and Umm Salama) who memorized the Qur'an. Like Hafsa, Aisha had her script of the Quran written after Muhammad's death.[66] During Aisha's life many prominent customs of Islam, such as veiling of women, began.

Aisha's importance to revitalizing the Arab tradition and leadership among the Arab women highlights her magnitude within Islam.[67] Aisha became involved in the politics of early Islam and the first three caliphate reigns: Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman. During a time in Islam when women were not expected or wanted, to contribute outside the household, Aisha delivered public speeches, became directly involved in a war and even battles, and helped both men and women to understand the practices of Muhammad.[34][additional citation(s) needed]

Role during caliphate

Role during first and second caliphates

After Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr was appointed as the first caliph. This matter of succession to Muhammad is extremely controversial to the Shia who believe that Ali had been appointed by Muhammad to lead while Sunni maintain that the public elected Abu Bakr.[68] Abu Bakr had two advantages in achieving his new role: his long personal friendship with Muhammad and his role as a father-in-law. As caliph, Abu Bakr was the first to set guidelines for the new position of authority.[69]

Aisha garnered more special privileges in the Islamic community for being known as both a wife of Muhammad and the daughter of the first caliph. Being the daughter of Abu Bakr tied Aisha to honorable titles earned from her father's strong dedication to Islam. For example, she was given the title of al-siddiqa bint al-Siddiq, meaning 'the truthful woman, daughter of the truthful man',[29] a reference to Abu Bakr's support of the Isra and Mi'raj.[70]

In 634 Abu Bakr fell sick and was unable to recover. Before his death, he appointed ‘Umar, one of his chief advisers, as the second caliph.[29] Throughout ‘Umar's time in power Aisha continued to play the role of a consultant in political matters.[29]

Role during the third caliphate

After ‘Umar died, ‘Uthmān was chosen to be the third caliph. He wanted to promote the interests of the Umayyads. Aisha had little involvement with ‘Uthmān for the first couple years, but eventually, she found a way into the politics of his reign. She eventually grew to despise ‘Uthmān, and many are unsure of what specifically triggered her eventual opposition towards him. A prominent opposition that arose towards him was when ‘Uthmān mistreated ‘Ammar ibn Yasir (companion of Muhammad) by beating him. Aisha became enraged and spoke out publicly, saying, "How soon indeed you have forgotten the practice (sunnah) of your prophet and these, his hairs, a shirt, and sandal have not yet perished!".[71]

As time continued issues of antipathy towards ‘Uthmān continued to arise. Another instance of opposition arose when the people came to Aisha after Uthmān ignored the rightful punishment for Walid ibn Uqbah (Uthmān's brother). Aisha and Uthmān argued with each other, Uthmān eventually commented on why Aisha had come and how she was "ordered to stay at home".[72] Arising from this comment, was the question of whether Aisha and for that matter women, still could be involved in public affairs. The Muslim community became split: "some sided with Uthmān, but others demanded to know who indeed had a better right than Aisha in such matters".[72]

The caliphate took a turn for the worse when Egypt was governed by Abdullah ibn Saad. Abbott reports that Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa of Egypt, an opponent of ‘Uthmān, forged letters in the Mothers of the Believers' names to the conspirators against ‘Uthmān. The people cut off ‘Uthmān's water and food supply. When Aisha realized the behavior of the crowd, Abbott notes, Aisha could not believe the crowd "would offer such indignities to a widow of Mohammad".[73] This refers to when Safiyya bint Huyayy (one of Muhammad's wives) tried to help ‘Uthmān and was taken by the crowd. Malik al-Ashtar then approached her about killing Uthmān and the letter, and she claimed she would never want to "command the shedding of the blood of the Muslims and the killing of their Imām";[73] she also claimed she did not write the letters.[74] The city continued to oppose ‘Uthmān, but as for Aisha, her journey to Mecca was approaching. With the journey to Mecca approaching at this time, she wanted to rid herself of the situation. ‘Uthmān heard of her not wanting to hurt him, and he asked her to stay because she influenced the people, but this did not persuade Aisha, and she continued on her journey.[9]

First Fitna

Main article: Battle of the Camel
Domains of Rashidun Caliphate under four caliphs. The divided phase relates to the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali during the First Fitna.
  Strongholds of the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali during the First Fitna
  Region under the control of Muawiyah I during the First Fitna
  Region under the control of Amr ibn al-As during the First Fitna

In 655, Uthman's house was put under siege by about 1000 rebels. Eventually the rebels broke into the house and murdered Uthman, provoking the First Fitna.[75] After killing Uthman, the rebels asked Ali to be the new caliph, although Ali was not involved in the murder of Uthman according to many reports.[76][77] Ali reportedly initially refused the caliphate, agreeing to rule only after his followers persisted.

When Ali could not execute those merely accused of Uthman's murder, Aisha delivered a fiery speech against him for not avenging the death of Uthman. The first to respond to Aisha was Abdullah ibn Aamar al-Hadhrami, the governor of Mecca during the reign of Uthman, and prominent members of the Banu Umayya. With the funds from the "Yemeni Treasury" Aisha set out on a campaign against the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali.[citation needed]

Aisha, along with an army including Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, confronted Ali's army, demanding the prosecution of Uthman's killers who had mingled with his army outside the city of Basra. When her forces captured Basra she ordered the execution of 600 Muslims and 40 others, including Hakim ibn Jabala, who were put to death in the Grand Mosque of Basra.[78][79][80] Aisha's forces are also known to have tortured and imprisoned Uthman ibn Hunaif a Sahabi and the governor of Basra appointed by Ali.[81]

Aisha battling the fourth caliph Ali in the Battle of the Camel

Ali rallied supporters and fought Aisha's forces near Basra in 656. The battle is known as the Battle of the Camel, after the fact that Aisha directed her forces from a howdah on the back of a large camel. Aisha's forces were defeated and an estimated 10,000 Muslims were killed in the battle,[82] considered the first engagement where Muslims fought Muslims.[83]

After 110 days of the conflict, the Rashidun Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib met Aisha with reconciliation. He sent her back to Medina under military escort headed by her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, one of Ali's commanders. She subsequently retired to Medina with no more interference with the affairs of the state. She was also awarded a pension by Ali.[84]

Although she retired to Medina, her forsaken efforts against the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali did not end the First Fitna.[85]

Contributions to Islam and influence

After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad participated in nine years of polygyny, marrying at least nine further wives. Muhammad's subsequent marriages were depicted purely as political matches rather than unions of sexual indulgence. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar associated him with two of the most significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Aisha's and Hafsa's fathers, Abu Bakr and ‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb, respectively.[86]

Aisha's marriage has given her significance among many within Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned woman of her time. Being Muhammad's favorite wife, Aisha occupied an important position in his life.[67] When Muhammad married Aisha in her youth, she was accessible "...to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women."[87] After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was discovered to be a renowned source of hadiths, due to her qualities of intelligence and memory.[67] Aisha conveyed ideas expressing Muhammad's practice (sunnah). She expressed herself as a role model to women, which can also be seen within some traditions attributed to her. The traditions regarding Aisha habitually opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change.[88]

According to Reza Aslan:[89]

The so-called Muslim women's movement is predicated on the idea that Muslim men, not Islam, have been responsible for the suppression of women's rights. For this reason, Muslim feminists throughout the world are advocating a return to the society Muhammad originally envisioned for his followers. Despite differences in culture, nationalities, and beliefs, these women believe that the lesson to be learned from Muhammad in Medina is that Islam is above all an egalitarian religion. Their Medina is a society in which Muhammad designated women like Umm Waraqa as spiritual guides for the Ummah; in which the Prophet himself was sometimes publicly rebuked by his wives; in which women prayed and fought alongside the men; in which women like Aisha and Umm Salamah acted not only as religious but also as political—and on at least one occasion military—leaders; and in which the call to gather for prayer, bellowed from the rooftop of Muhammad's house, brought men and women together to kneel side by side and be blessed as a single undivided community.

Not only was Aisha supportive of Muhammad, but she contributed scholarly intellect to the development of Islam.[87] She was given the title al-Siddiqah, meaning 'the one who affirms the truth'. Aisha was known for her "...expertise in the Quran, shares of inheritance, lawful and unlawful matters, poetry, Arabic literature, Arab history, genealogy, and general medicine."[87] Her intellectual contributions regarding the verbal texts of Islam were in time transcribed into written form, becoming the official history of Islam.[90] After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was regarded as the most reliable source in the teachings of hadith.[87] Aisha's authentication of Muhammad's ways of prayer and his recitation of the Qur'an allowed for the development of knowledge of his sunnah of praying and reading verses of the Quran.[34]

During Aisha's entire life she was a strong advocate for the education of Islamic women, especially in law and the teachings of Islam. She was known for establishing the first madrasa for women in her home.[87][additional citation(s) needed] Attending Aisha's classes were various family relatives and orphaned children. Men also attended Aisha's classes, with a simple curtain separating the male and female students.[87][additional citation(s) needed]

Political influence

Spellberg argues that Aisha's political influence helped promote her father, Abu Bakr, to the caliphate after Muhammad's death.[6]

After the defeat at the Battle of the Camel, Aisha retreated to Medina and became a teacher.[6] Upon her arrival in Medina, Aisha retired from her public role in politics. Her discontinuation of public politics did not stop her political influence completely. Privately, Aisha continued influencing those intertwined in the Islamic political sphere. Among the Islamic community, she was known as an intelligent woman who debated law with male companions.[91] Aisha was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the pilgrimage to Mecca, a journey she made with several groups of women. For the last two years of her life, Aisha spent much of her time telling the stories of Muhammad, hoping to correct false passages that had become influential in formulating Islamic law. Due to this, Aisha's political influence continues to impact those in Islam.[6]

Death

Aisha died at her home in Medina on 17 Ramadan 58 AH (16 July 678).[a] She was 67 years old.[93] Famous companion of prophet Muhammad- Abu Hurairah led her funeral prayer after the tahajjud (night) prayer, and she was buried at Jannat al-Baqi‘.[94]

Views

Sunni view of Aisha

Sunnis believe she was Muhammad's favorite wife after Khadija bint Khuwaylid. They consider her (among other wives) to be Umm al-Mu’minin and among the members of the Ahl al-Bayt, or Muhammad's family. According to Sunni hadith reports, Muhammad saw Aisha in two dreams[95][96] in which he was shown that he would marry her.[97][98]

Shia view of Aisha

Main article: Shia view of Aisha

The Shia view Aisha is different than Sunni. They criticize her for opposing Ali during his caliphate in the Battle of the Camel, when she fought men from Ali's army in Basra.[99]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ This is the generally accepted date, although the actual date of death is not known for certain.[92]

Citations

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  2. ^ "Aisha". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
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  4. ^ "Ayesha" (US) and "Ayesha". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 15 July 2020.
  5. ^ a b Esposito 2004a.
  6. ^ a b c d Spellberg 1994, p. 3
  7. ^ Quran 33:6
  8. ^ Brockelmann 1947
  9. ^ a b c Abbott 1942
  10. ^ a b c d Ali, Kecia (2014). "Mother of the Faithful". The lives of Muhammad. Harvard: Harvard University Press. pp. 133, 155–199. ISBN 9780674050600.
  11. ^ Spellberg, Denise A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr. Columbia University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-231-07999-0.
  12. ^ Aleem, Shamim (2007). Prophet Muhammad(s) and His Family: A Sociological Perspective. AuthorHouse. p. 130. ISBN 9781434323576.
  13. ^ Islamyat: a core text for students
  14. ^ a b Sayeed, Asma (6 August 2013). Women and the Transmission of Religious Knowledge in Islam. Cambridge University Press. pp. 27–9. ISBN 9781107031586.
  15. ^ a b c Watt 1960
  16. ^ Saeed, Abdullah (15 January 2008). The Qur'an: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-134-10294-5.
  17. ^ Esposito 2004b, p. 101.
  18. ^ Nigosian, Solomon A. (29 January 2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-253-11074-9.
  19. ^ Lewis, Bernard (1950). Arabs in history. pp. 36–8.
  20. ^ Hallaq, Wael B. (1999). "The Authenticity of Prophetic Ḥadîth: A Pseudo-Problem". Studia Islamica (89): 75–90. doi:10.2307/1596086. ISSN 0585-5292. JSTOR 1596086.
  21. ^ Abbott 1942, p. 1
  22. ^ Ibn Sa'd 1995, p. 55

    Aisha was born at the beginning of the fourth year of prophethood

    i.e., the year 613–614
  23. ^ Watt 1961, p. 102
  24. ^ Abbott 1942, p. 7
  25. ^ Ahmed 1992
  26. ^ a b Abbott 1942, p. 3
  27. ^ Sonbol 2003, pp. 3–9
  28. ^ a b Bahramian, Ali. "ʿĀʾisha". In Madelung, Wilferd (ed.). Encyclopaedia Islamica. Brill. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0235.
  29. ^ a b c d e Spellberg 1994, pp. 34–40
  30. ^ Spellberg 1994, pp. 197–198
  31. ^ Ahmed 1992, pp. 51–54
  32. ^ a b A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. pp. 142–155. ISBN 978-1780744209.
  33. ^ Hanafi, Yusuf (2020). "Kontroversi Usia Kawin Aisyah Ra Dan Kaitannya Dengan Legalitas Perkawinan Anak Di Bawah Umur Dalam Islam". Istinbáth: Journal of Islamic Law/Jurnal Hukum Islam. 15 (2): 300-310.
  34. ^ a b c Ahmed 1992, p. 51
  35. ^ Roded 1994, p. 36
  36. ^ Roded 2008, p. 23
  37. ^ Joseph 2007, p. 227
  38. ^ McAuliffe 2001, p. 55
  39. ^ Mernissi 1988, p. 65
  40. ^ Mernissi 1988, p. 107
  41. ^ Abbott 1942, p. 25
  42. ^ Roded 1994, p. 28
  43. ^ Abbott 1942, p. 46
  44. ^ Shaikh 2003, p. 33
  45. ^ Abbott 1942, p. 8
  46. ^ Lings 1983, pp. 133–134
  47. ^ Haykal 1976, pp. 183–184
  48. ^ Abbott 1942, pp. 67–68
  49. ^ Lings 1983, p. 371
  50. ^ Ahmed 1992, pp. 51–52
  51. ^ Mernissi 1988, p. 104
  52. ^ Mernissi 1988, p. 78
  53. ^ Ramadan 2007, p. 121
  54. ^ "Hadith – Book of Merits of the Helpers in Madinah (Ansaar) – Sahih al-Bukhari – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 25 December 2019.
  55. ^ "Hadith – Book of Jihad (Kitab Al-Jihad) – Sunan Abi Dawud – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
  56. ^ Sohail, Ustadh Abu Haneefah (30 January 2015). "Al-Ifk: Lessons from the heinous lie against 'Ā'isha (radiyAllau 'anha), Mother of the Believers". Islam21c. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
  57. ^ The story is told multiple times in the early traditions, nearly all of the versions being ultimately derived from Aisha's account. Typical examples can be found in Sahih al-Bukhari 4141, 2770a and Ibn Ishaq 1955, pp. 494–499.
  58. ^ "Great Women of Islam – Zaynab bint Jahsh". Archived from the original on 15 October 2012. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
  59. ^ Ibn Sa'd 1995, pp. 132–133
  60. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:43:648
  61. ^ Ahmed 1992, p. 58
  62. ^ Abbott 1942, p. 69
  63. ^ Lings 1983, p. 339
  64. ^ Haykal 1976, pp. 502–503
  65. ^ Ibn Ishaq 1955, p. 679 and 682
  66. ^ "Aishah bint Abu Bakr". Jannah.org. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 31 December 2013.
  67. ^ a b c Elsadda 2001, pp. 37–64
  68. ^ Aghaie 2005.
  69. ^ Spellberg 1994, pp. 4–5
  70. ^ Spellberg 1994, p. 33
  71. ^ Abbott 1942, p. 108
  72. ^ a b Abbott 1942, p. 111
  73. ^ a b Abbott 1942, p. 122
  74. ^ Abbott 1942, p. 123
  75. ^ See:
  76. ^ Holt 1977, pp. 67–68
  77. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 107 and 111
  78. ^ "Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib – Ayesha's Occupation of Basra (Hakim b Jabala)". Alim.org. Archived from the original on 15 November 2013. Retrieved 31 December 2013.
  79. ^ Ishaq, Mohammad (1955). "Hakim bin Jabala — An heroic personality of early islam". Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society. 3 (1): 138–150.
  80. ^ Razwy 2001
  81. ^ "Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib – Ayesha's Occupation of Basra (War in Basra)". Alim.org. Archived from the original on 15 November 2013. Retrieved 31 December 2013.
  82. ^ Glubb 1963, p. 320
  83. ^ Goodwin 1994
  84. ^ Muir 1892, p. 261
  85. ^ Black 1994, p. 34
  86. ^ Aslan 2005, pp. 58–136
  87. ^ a b c d e f Anwar, Jawed (4 April 2005). "History Shows the Importance of Women in Muslim Life". Muslims Weekly. Pacific News Service. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
  88. ^ Geissinger 2011, pp. 37–49
  89. ^ Aslan 2005, p. 136
  90. ^ Ahmed 1992, pp. 47–75
  91. ^ Geissinger 2011, p. 42
  92. ^ Haylamaz, Resit (1 March 2013). Aisha: The Wife, The Companion, The Scholar. Tughra Books. pp. 192–193. ISBN 9781597846554. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
  93. ^ Nasa'i 1994, p. 108

    ‘A’isha was eighteen years of age at the time when the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) died and she remained a widow for forty-eight years till she died at the age of sixty-seven. She saw the rules of four caliphs in her lifetime. She died in Ramadan 58 AH during the caliphate of Mu‘awiya...
  94. ^ Ibn Kathir, p. 97
  95. ^ Richard Crandall (2008). Islam: The Enemy. Xulon Press. p. 129.
  96. ^ Kelly Bulkeley; Kate Adams; Patricia M. Davis (2009). "6 (Dreaming in the Life of the Prophet Muhammad)". Dreaming in Christianity and Islam: Culture, Conflict, and Creativity. Rutgers University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9780813546100.
  97. ^ M. Fethullah Gülen (2014). Questions and Answers About Islam Vol. 1. Işık Yayıncılık Ticaret. ISBN 9781597846189. 4.4 (Why Was The Prophet Polygamous?) This is surely why the Prophet was told in a dream that he would marry Aisha.
  98. ^ "The Book of Marriage". SahihalBukhari.Com. SalafiPublications.Comlocation=Hadeeth No. 4745 & 4787. Archived from the original on 23 November 2015.
  99. ^ "Objections to the Shia criticisms leveled at Ayesha". Shiapen.com. 17 October 2013. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 31 December 2013.

Sources

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