Hakka Chinese
Hakka | |
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客家話 Hak-kâ-va / Hak-kâ-fa | |
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Native to | China, Taiwan |
Region | Mainland China: Guangdong, adjoining regions of Fujian, Jiangxi, Southern Hunan and the midwest of Sichuan Hong Kong: New Territories and Malaysia (older generations since younger Hakkas mostly speak Cantonese due to language shift and social assimilation) |
Ethnicity | Hakka |
Native speakers | 47.8 million (2007)[1] |
Sino-Tibetan
| |
Written Chinese Latin (Pha̍k-fa-sṳ) | |
Official status | |
Official language in | ![]() |
Recognised minority language in | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | hak |
Glottolog | hakk1236 |
Linguasphere | 79-AAA-g > 79-AAA-ga
(+ 79-AAA-gb transition to 79-AAA-h) |
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Hakka | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Hakka | hag5 ga1 fa4 or hag5 ga1 va4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Hakka Chinese (Chinese: 客家話; pinyin: Kèjiāhuà, Chinese: 客語; pinyin: Kèyǔ, Hak-kâ-va) is a language group of varieties of Chinese, spoken natively by the Hakka people throughout Southern China and Taiwan and throughout the diaspora areas of East Asia, Southeast Asia and in overseas Chinese communities around the world.
Due to its primary usage in scattered isolated regions where communication is limited to the local area, Hakka has developed numerous varieties or dialects, spoken in different provinces, such as Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Fujian, Sichuan, Hunan, Jiangxi and Guizhou, as well as in Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. Hakka is not mutually intelligible with Yue, Wu, Southern Min, Mandarin or other branches of Chinese, and itself contains a few mutually unintelligible varieties. It is most closely related to Gan and is sometimes classified as a variety of Gan, with a few northern Hakka varieties even being partially mutually intelligible with southern Gan. There is also a possibility that the similarities are just a result of shared areal features.[5]
Taiwan (where Hakka is the native language of a significant minority of the island's residents) is a center for the study and preservation of the language. Pronunciation differences exist between the Taiwanese Hakka dialects and Mainland China's Hakka dialects; even in Taiwan, two major local varieties of Hakka exist.
The Meixian dialect (Moiyen) of northeast Guangdong in China has been taken as the "standard" dialect by the People's Republic of China. The Guangdong Provincial Education Department created an official romanization of Moiyen in 1960, one of four languages receiving this status in Guangdong.
Etymology[edit]
The name of the Hakka people who are the predominant original native speakers of the variety literally means "guest families" or "guest people": Hak (Mandarin: kè) means "guest", and ka (Mandarin: jiā) means "family". Among themselves, Hakka people variously called their language Hak-ka-fa (-va), Hak-fa (-va), Tu-gong-dung-fa (-va), literally "Native Guangdong language", and Ngai-fa (-va), "My/our language". In Tonggu County, Jiangxi province, people call their language Huai-yuan-fa.
History[edit]
Early history[edit]
It is commonly believed that Hakka people have their origins in several episodes of migration from northern China into southern China during periods of war and civil unrest[6] dating back as far as the end of Western Jin.[7] The forebears of the Hakka came from present-day Central Plains provinces of Henan and Shaanxi, and brought with them features of Chinese varieties spoken in those areas during that time. (Since then, the speech in those regions has evolved into dialects of modern Mandarin). The presence of many archaic features occur in modern Hakka, including final consonants -p -t -k, as are found in other modern southern Chinese varieties, but which have been lost in Mandarin.
Laurent Sagart (2002)[8] considers Hakka and southern Gan Chinese to be sister dialects that descended from a single common ancestral language (Proto-Southern Gan) spoken in central Jiangxi during the Song Dynasty. In Hakka and southern Gan, Sagart (2002) identifies a non-Chinese substratum that is possibly Hmong-Mien, an archaic layer, and a more recent Late Middle Chinese layer. Lexical connections between Hakka, Kra-Dai, and Hmong-Mien have also been suggested by Deng (1999).[9]
Due to the migration of its speakers, Hakka may have been influenced by other language areas through which the Hakka-speaking forebears migrated. For instance, common vocabulary is found in Hakka, Min, and the She (Hmong–Mien) languages.[citation needed] Today, most She people in Fujian and Zhejiang speak Shehua, which is closely related to Hakka.
Linguistic development[edit]
A regular pattern of sound change can generally be detected in Hakka, as in most Chinese varieties, of the derivation of phonemes from earlier forms of Chinese. Some examples:
- Characters such as 武 (war, martial arts) or 屋 (room, house), pronounced roughly mwio and uk (mjuX and ʔuwk in Baxter's transcription) in Early Middle Chinese, have an initial v phoneme in Hakka, being vu and vuk in Hakka respectively. Like in Mandarin, labiodentalisation in Hakka also changed mj- to a w-like sound before grave vowels, while Cantonese retained the original distinction (compare Mandarin 武 wǔ, 屋 wū, Cantonese 武 mou5, 屋 uk1).
- Middle Chinese initial phonemes /ɲ/ (ny in Baxter's transcription) of the characters 人 (person, people) and 日 (sun, day), among others, merged with ng- /ŋ/ initials in Hakka (人 ngin, 日 ngit). For comparison, in Mandarin, /ɲ/ became r- /ɻ/ (人 rén, 日 rì), while in Cantonese, it merged with initial y- /j/ (人 yan4, 日 yat6).
- The initial consonant phoneme exhibited by the character 話 (word, speech; Mandarin huà) is pronounced f or v in Hakka (v does not properly exist as a distinct unit in many Chinese varieties).
- The initial consonant of 學 hɔk usually corresponds with an h [h] approximant in Hakka and a voiceless alveo-palatal fricative (x [ɕ]) in Mandarin.
Phonology[edit]
Dialects[edit]
Hakka has as many regional dialects as there are counties with Hakka speakers as the majority. Some of these Hakka dialects are not mutually intelligible with each other. Meixian is surrounded by the counties of Pingyuan, Dabu, Jiaoling, Xingning, Wuhua, and Fengshun. Each county has its own special phonological points of interest. For instance, Xingning lacks the codas [-m] and [-p]. These have merged into [-n] and [-t], respectively. Further away from Meixian, the Hong Kong dialect lacks the [-u-] medial, so whereas the Meixian dialect pronounces the character 光 as [kwɔŋ˦], the Hong Kong Hakka dialect pronounces it as [kɔŋ˧], which is similar to the Hakka spoken in neighbouring Shenzhen.
Tones also vary across the dialects of Hakka. The majority of Hakka dialects have six tones. However, there are dialects which have lost all of their checked tones (rusheng), and the characters originally of this tone class are distributed across the non-ru tones. An example of such a dialect is Changting, which is situated in Western Fujian province. Moreover, there is evidence of the retention of an earlier Hakka tone system in the dialects of Haifeng and Lufeng, situated in coastal southeastern Guangdong province. They contain a yin-yang splitting in the qu tone, giving rise to seven tones in all (with yin-yang registers in ping and ru tones and a shang tone).
In Taiwan, there are two main dialects: Sixian and Hailu (alternatively known as Haifeng; Hailu refers to Haifeng County and Lufeng County). Most Hakka speakers in Taiwan can trace their ancestry to these two regions. Sixian speakers come from Jiaying Prefecture, mainly from the four counties of Chengxiang (now Meixian District), Zhengping (now Jiaoling), Xingning and Pingyuan. Most dialects of Taiwanese Hakka, except Sixian and Dabu, preserved postalveolar consonants ([tʃ], [tʃʰ], [ʃ] and [ʒ]), which are uncommon in other southern Chinese varieties.
- Huizhou dialect (not to be confused with Huizhou Chinese)
- Meixian dialect (otherwise known as Meizhou)
- Wuhua dialect
- Xingning dialect
- Pingyuan dialect
- Jiaoling dialect
- Dabu dialect
- Fengshun dialect
- Hailu dialect
- Sixian dialect
- Raoping dialect (a.k.a. Shangrao)[10]
- Zhaoan dialect
Ethnologue reports the dialects of Hakka as being Yue-Tai (Meixian, Wuhua, Raoping, Taiwan Kejia: Meizhou above), Yuezhong (Central Guangdong), Huizhou, Yuebei (Northern Guangdong), Tingzhou (Min-Ke), Ning-Long (Longnan), Yugui, and Tonggu.
Vocabulary[edit]
Like other southern Chinese varieties, Hakka retains single syllable words from earlier stages of Chinese; thus a large number of syllables are distinguished by tone and final consonant. This reduces the need for compounding or making words of more than one syllable. However, it is also similar to other Chinese varieties in having words which are made from more than one syllable.
Hakka hanzi | Pronunciation | English | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
人 | [ŋin˩] | person | |
碗 | [ʋɔn˧˩] | bowl | |
狗 | [kɛu˧˩] | dog | |
牛 | [ŋiu˩] | cow | |
屋 | [ʋuk˩] | house | |
嘴 | [tsɔi˥˧] | mouth | |
𠊎 | [ŋai˩] | me / I | In Hakka, the standard Chinese equivalent 我 is pronounced [ŋɔ˧]. |
渠[11] or 𠍲[12] | [ki˩] | he / she / it | In Hakka, the standard Chinese equivalents 他 / 她 / 它 /牠 are pronounced [tʰa˧]. |
Hakka hanzi | Pronunciation | English |
---|---|---|
日頭 | [ŋit˩ tʰɛu˩] | sun |
月光 | [ŋiɛt˥ kʷɔŋ˦] | moon |
屋下 | [ʋuk˩ kʰa˦] | home |
屋家 | ||
電話 | [tʰiɛn˥ ʋa˥˧] | telephone |
學堂 | [hɔk˥ tʰɔŋ˩] | school |
筷子 | [kai zi˩] | chopsticks |
Hakka, as well as numerous other Chinese varieties such as Min and Cantonese, prefers the verb [kɔŋ˧˩] 講 when referring to saying rather than the Mandarin shuō 說 (Hakka [sɔt˩]).
Hakka uses [sit˥] 食, like Cantonese [sɪk˨] for the verb "to eat" and 飲 [jɐm˧˥] (Hakka [jim˧˩]) for "to drink", unlike Mandarin which prefers chī 吃 (Hakka [kʰiɛt˩]) as "to eat" and hē 喝 (Hakka [hɔt˩]) as "to drink" where the meanings in Hakka are different, to stutter and to be thirsty respectively.
Hakka hanzi | IPA | English |
---|---|---|
阿妹,若姆去投墟轉來唔曾? | [a˦ mɔi˥, ɲja˦ mi˦ hi˥ tʰju˩ hi˦ tsɔn˧˩ lɔi˩ m˦ tsʰɛn˩] | Has your mother returned from going to the market yet, child? |
其老弟捉到隻蛘葉來搞。 | [kja˦ lau˧˩ tʰai˦ tsuk˧ tau˧˩ tsak˩ jɔŋ˩ jap˥ lɔi˩ kau˧˩] | His/her younger brother caught a butterfly to play with. |
好冷阿,水桶个水敢凝冰阿。 | [hau˧˩ laŋ˦ ɔ˦, sui˧˩ tʰuŋ˧ kai˥˧ sui˧˩ kam˦ kʰɛn˩ pɛn˦ ɔ˦] | It's very cold, the water in the bucket has frozen over. |
Writing systems[edit]
![](http://webcf.waybackmachine.org/web/20220429225501im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/%E8%89%BE%E6%97%8F%E7%9A%84%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8%E4%BD%9C%E5%93%81.jpg/280px-%E8%89%BE%E6%97%8F%E7%9A%84%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8%E4%BD%9C%E5%93%81.jpg)
Chinese script[edit]
Hakka Chinese are typically written using Chinese characters (漢字, Hàn-jī).
Latin script[edit]
Various dialects of Hakka such as Taiwanese Hakka, is sometimes written in the Latin script or Pha̍k-fa-sṳ.
Dialects of Hakka have been written in a number of Latin orthographies, largely for religious purposes, since at least the mid-19th century. The popular The Little Prince has also been translated into Hakka (2000), specifically the Miaoli dialect of Taiwan (itself a variant of the Sixian dialect). This also was dual-script, albeit using the Tongyong Pinyin scheme.[citation needed]
Media[edit]
![](http://webcf.waybackmachine.org/web/20220429225501im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/06.23_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%87%BA%E5%B8%AD%E3%80%8C%E8%AC%9B%E5%AE%A2%E5%BB%A3%E6%92%AD%E9%9B%BB%E8%87%BA%E9%96%8B%E6%92%AD%E8%8C%B6%E6%9C%83%E3%80%8D%EF%BC%8C%E8%88%87%E5%AE%A2%E5%A7%94%E6%9C%83%E4%B8%BB%E5%A7%94%E6%9D%8E%E6%B0%B8%E5%BE%97%E4%B8%80%E5%90%8C%E9%80%B2%E5%85%A5%E6%92%AD%E9%9F%B3%E5%AE%A4%E7%99%BC%E8%A1%A8%E8%AB%87%E8%A9%B1_%2835091231370%29.jpg/250px-06.23_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%87%BA%E5%B8%AD%E3%80%8C%E8%AC%9B%E5%AE%A2%E5%BB%A3%E6%92%AD%E9%9B%BB%E8%87%BA%E9%96%8B%E6%92%AD%E8%8C%B6%E6%9C%83%E3%80%8D%EF%BC%8C%E8%88%87%E5%AE%A2%E5%A7%94%E6%9C%83%E4%B8%BB%E5%A7%94%E6%9D%8E%E6%B0%B8%E5%BE%97%E4%B8%80%E5%90%8C%E9%80%B2%E5%85%A5%E6%92%AD%E9%9F%B3%E5%AE%A4%E7%99%BC%E8%A1%A8%E8%AB%87%E8%A9%B1_%2835091231370%29.jpg)
Hakka TV is a state-run, primarily Hakka-language television channel in Taiwan that started in 2003. In mainland China, Meizhou Televisions's Hakka Public Channel (梅州电视台客家公共频道) has broadcasts 24 hours a day in Hakka since 2006.[13][better source needed]
See also[edit]
- Varieties of Chinese
- Hakka culture
- Hakka Transliteration Scheme
- Pha̍k-fa-sṳ
- Hagfa Pinyim
- Protection of the Varieties of Chinese
- Taiwanese Hakka
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ Hakka at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
- ^ Fan, Cheng-hsiang; Kao, Evelyn (2018-12-25). "Draft National Language Development Act Clears Legislative Floor". Focus Taiwan News Channel. Central News Agency. Archived from the original on 2018-12-25.
- ^ a b "Dàzhòng yùnshū gōngjù bòyīn yǔyán píngděng bǎozhàng fǎ" 大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法 [Act on Broadcasting Language Equality Protection in Public Transport] (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
- ^ Article 6 of the Standards for Identification of Basic Language Abilities and General Knowledge of the Rights and Duties of Naturalized Citizens Archived 2017-07-25 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J., eds. (2003). The Sino-Tibetan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1129-5.
- ^ "The Hakka People > Historical Background". edu.ocac.gov.tw. Archived from the original on 2019-09-09. Retrieved 2010-06-11.
- ^ "[Insert title here]". edu.ocac.gov.tw (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2004-08-30. Retrieved 2014-10-12.
- ^ Sagart (2002).
- ^ Deng, Xiaohua 邓晓华 (1999). "Kèjiāhuà gēn Miáo-Yáo-Zhuàng-Dòngyǔ de Guānxì wèntí" 客家话跟苗瑶壮侗语的关系问题 (PDF). Mínzú yǔwén 民族语文 (in Chinese). 3: 42–49. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-03-27. Retrieved 2021-07-03.
- ^ Zhan, Bohui 詹伯慧 (1993). "Guǎngdōng Shěng Ráopíng fāngyán jì yīn" 广东省饶平方言记音. Fāngyán 方言 (in Simplified Chinese) (2): 129–141.
- ^ Liu, Zhenfa 劉鎮發 (1997). Kèyǔ pīnyīn zìhuì 客語拼音字彙 [Hakka Pinyin Vocabulary] (in Chinese). Xianggang zhongwen daxue chubanshe. p. xxvi. ISBN 962-201-750-9.
- ^ 𠍲. Jiàoyùbù yìtǐzì zìdiǎn 教育部異體字字典 [Dictionary of Chinese Character Variants of the Ministry of Education] (in Chinese). Retrieved 2021-11-04.
- ^ "Méizhōu diànshìtái kāishè quán kèjiā huà píndào (24 xiǎoshí bō chū)" 梅州电视台开设全客家话频道(24小时播出) [Meizhou TV Station Opens an All-Hakka Dialect Channel (24 Hours Broadcast)]. Luófú shān pùbù de bókè 罗浮山瀑布的博客 (in Chinese). blog.sina.com.cn. 2011-07-21.
Further reading[edit]
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Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Hakka. |
- Branner, David Prager (2000). Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology – the Classification of Miin and Hakka. Trends in Linguistics series, no. 123. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-015831-1.
- Hashimoto, Mantaro J. (2010). The Hakka Dialect: A Linguistic Study of Its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon. Princeton/Cambridge Studies in Chinese Linguistics. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13367-8.
- O'Connor, Kevin A. (1976). "Proto-Hakka". Ajia Afurika Gengo Bunka Kenkyū / Journal of Asia and Africa Studies. 11 (1): 1–64.
- Sagart, Laurent (1998). "On distinguishing Hakka and non-Hakka dialects". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 26 (2): 281–302. JSTOR 23756757.
- ——— (2002). "Gan, Hakka and the Formation of Chinese Dialects" (PDF). In Ho, Dah-an (ed.). Dialect Variations in Chinese: Papers from the Third International Conference on Sinology, Linguistics Section. Taipei: Academia Sinica. pp. 129–153.
- Schaank, Simon Hartwich (1897). Het Loeh-foeng-dialect (in Dutch). Leiden: E.J. Brill. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
- Taiwan Language Tool (including Hakka)