Kham language
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Kham | |
---|---|
Native to | Nepal |
Region | Rapti Zone, Rolpa and Rukum Districts Dhaulagiri Zone, Baglung District, Karnali |
Ethnicity | Western Magar |
Native speakers | 210,000 (2011 census)[1] |
Devanagari | |
Official status | |
Official language in | No official status |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | Variously:kif – Eastern Parbate Khamkgj – Gamale Khamkip – Sheshi Khamkjl – Western Parbate Pang |
Glottolog | kham1286 |
ELP | Gamale Kham |
Kham (Nepali: खाम भाषा)—narrowly defined—is a complex of Sino-Tibetan, specifically Magaric languages spoken natively in the highlands of the Rolpa and Rukum districts of Rapti and the westernmost part of Baglung district in Dhawalagiri Zone and Karnali region by western clans of the Kham Magar tribes, called collectively western Khams.[citation needed] Randy LaPolla (2003) proposes that Kham Magar and Dhut Magar may be part of a larger "Rung" group.[citation needed] However, both may ultimately go for separate ethnic identity as they have distinct linguistic and cultural barriers.
Geographical distribution[edit]
Ethnologue lists the following location information for the varieties of Kham.
Eastern Parbate Kham (dialects: Bhujel Kham, Nishel Kham) is spoken in the following villages of Baglung District, Dhawalagiri Zone.
- Nishel dialect: Nisi, Bhalkot, and Budhathok villages
- Bhujel dialect: Kuku, Diza, Kang, Masbang, Musuri, and Sukurdung villages
Western Parbate Kham (dialects: Takale, Maikoti, Mahatale, Lukumel, Wale, Thabangi)
Taka-Shera is considered to be the center of the Western Parbate Kham variety.
Gamal Kham (dialects: Tamali, Ghusbanggi)
Gamal Kham is spoken in the western hills of Gam Khola, in Gam, Jhyalgung, Chalbang, Tamali, Dangadhara, Sheram, Ghusbang, Huiching, Guwakholagau, Maulabang, and Kuipadhara villages.
Sheshi Kham (dialects: Tapnanggi, Jangkoti)
- Western hills of Rolpa District, Rapti Zone: in Jangkot, Kotgaon (Tapnang), Rimsek, Korcabang, Dangdung, Hwama, Dhangsi, Bhabang, and Ghapa villages.
Dialects[edit]
Watters (2002:12) classifies the Kham dialects as follows.
- Proto-Kham
- Sheshi
- Tapnangi
- Jangkoti
- Gamal
- Tamali
- Ghusbangi
- Parbate
- Eastern Parbate
- Nishel
- Bhujel
- Western Parbate
- Maikoti
- Takale (including the Takale, Sheral, Ghumilbangi, Garkhanyel, Koral, and Nakhale village sub-dialects)
- Lukumel
- Thabangi
- Wale
- Eastern Parbate
Phonology[edit]
Consonants[edit]
Taka dialect[2] of Western Parbate Kham has 22 consonant phonemes while Gamale Kham possesses around 29 to 30 consonant phonemes.
Bilabial | Alveolar | Lateral | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plain | labial–velar | |||||||||
Nasal | voiceless | m̥ | n̥ | ŋ̊ | ||||||
voiced | m | n | ŋ | |||||||
Plosive | voiceless | p | t | k | ʔ | |||||
voiced | b | d | ɡ | |||||||
aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | kʰ | |||||||
Affricate | voiceless | t͡s | ||||||||
voiced | d͡z | |||||||||
aspirated | t͡sʰ | |||||||||
Fricative | voiceless | s | ɬ | ç | h | |||||
voiced | z | |||||||||
Rhotic | ɾ | |||||||||
Approx. | plain | l | j | |||||||
labial | voiceless | ɥ̊ | ʍ | |||||||
voiced | ɥ | w |
- green phonemes do not occur in Parbate Kham.[2]
- the phonemes in Light salmon colour appear in Ghusbang and Sheram[3] dialect. All others appear in every Kham dialect.
- The rhotic /ɾ/ is realized as a trill [r] at the end of words. Otherwise, it is a flap.
Vowels[edit]
Taka dialect of Western Parbate has 25 vowel phonemes.
Front | Central | Back | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
unrounded | rounded | unrounded | rounded | |||||||||||
short | long | nasal | short | long | short | long | nasal | short | long | nasal | short | long | nasal | |
Close | i | iː | ĩː | y | yː | ɯ | ɯː | ɯ̃ː | u | uː | ũː | |||
Mid | e | eː | ẽː | ø | øː | ə | əː | ə̃ː | o | oː | õː | |||
Open mid | ɛ | |||||||||||||
Open | ɐ | ɐː | ɐ̃ː |
- Light salmon vowels occur in every dialect of Kham.
- Breathy vowels
- Diphthongs
Tone[edit]
See vocal registers.
Writing[edit]
Consonants[edit]
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Deva. | ज़[4] | झ़ | न्ह | म्ह | व़ | ह्ल | ह्व | ह्व़ |
trans. | z | zh | nh | mh | ẏ | hl | hw | hẏ |
IPA | z | zV̤ | n̥ | m̥ | ɥ | ɬ | ʍ | ɥ̊ |
क | ख | ग | घ | ङ |
---|---|---|---|---|
/kə/ | /kʰə/ | /ɡə/ | /ɡə̤/ | /ŋə/ |
च | छ | ज | झ | ञ |
/t͡sə/ | /t͡sʰə/ | /d͡zə/ | /d͡zə̤/ | /nə/ |
ट | ठ | ड | ढ | ण |
/tə/ | /tʰə/ | /də/ | /də̤/ | /nə/ |
त | थ | द | ध | न |
/tə/ | /tʰə/ | /də/ | /də̤/ | /nə/ |
प | फ | ब | भ | म |
/pə/ | /pʰə/ | /bə/ | /bə̤/ | /mə/ |
य | र | ल | व | |
/jə/ | /rə/ | /lə/ | /wə/ | |
श | ष | स | ह | |
/çə/ | /sə/ | /sə/ | /hə/ | |
क्ष | त्र | ज्ञ | ||
/t͡sʰə/ | /trə/ | /ɡjə/ |
Vowels[edit]
Devanagari | Roman | IPA | |
---|---|---|---|
अ | a | ə | |
आ | ā | ɐ | |
इ | i | i | |
इ़ | ü | y | |
ई | ī | iː | |
उ | u | u | |
उ़ | ï | ɯ | |
ऊ | ū | uː | |
ए | e | e, ɛ | |
ए़ | ø | ø | |
ऐ | ai | əj | |
ओ | o | o | |
औ | au | əw | |
ः | h, ḥ | V̤ | |
ँ | ◌̃ | ◌̃ː | |
ं | ◌̃, ṅ, n, ṇ, ñ | ◌̃ː, ŋ, n | |
ॱ, . °, ॰, ऽ | ' | ◌ː | |
ॽ | ’ | ʔ |
Vowels for Gamale Kham[edit]
Orthography | अ | आ | इ/ई | उ/ऊ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | अं | अः | अँ | ॱअ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Roman | a | ā | i/ī | u/ū | e | ai | o | au | aṃ | aḥ | ã | a' |
IPA | ə | ɐ | i | u | e, ɛ | əj | o | əw | ə̃ | ə̤ | ə̃ | əʔ |
Reconstruction[edit]
Proto-Kham has been reconstructed by Watters (2002). Proto-Kham reconstructions from Watters (2002: 443–456) are given below.
- A. Body parts
- *r-dzəŋ ~ *b-dzəŋ 'back'
- *yep 'back (upper)'
- *phuː 'belly'
- *dziːh 'blood'
- *klaŋ 'body'
- *s-rus 'bone'
- *nun 'breast'
- *sək 'breath'
- *r-mehsiŋ 'buttocks'
- *r-tso 'cheek'
- *r-na 'ear'
- *(ba)r-zut 'egg'
- *mik 'eye'
- *s-ŋa 'face'
- *sot 'fat'
- *r-sin 'fingernail'
- *kəŋ 'foot'
- *r-nihl 'gums'
- *r-ta 'guts'
- *muhl 'hair (body)'
- *p-tsem 'hair (head)'
- *kut 'hand'
- *r-la 'the under-arm area; side of the body'
- *s-r-ŋat 'head'
- *s-yiŋ 'heart'
- *b-rəhŋ 'horn'
- *sya 'animal'
- *r-khap 'jawbone'
- *kəl 'kidney'
- *p-sin 'liver'
- *yaːh 'mouth'
- *s-məŋ 'mustache'
- *r-dehŋ 'neck'
- *s-nat 'nose'
- *r-dzihs 'piss'
- *s-nis 'pus'
- *b-rəhm 'rib'
- *p-s-til 'saliva'
- *kli 'shit'
- *r-kək 'excrement in the intestine of a slaughtered animal'
- *s-pum 'shoulder'
- *r-sa 'sinew'
- *l-kota 'skin'
- *r-nahp 'snot'
- *r-meh 'tail'
- *r-pihl 'tears'
- *r-b-yah 'thigh (upper side)'
- *p-s-le 'tongue'
- *ha-p-sya 'tooth'
- *wohs 'vomit'
- *hwaŋ 'waist'
- *r-mil ~ *s-mil 'wind pipe'
- *kər 'wing'
- B. Pronouns/kinship terms/nouns referring to humans'
- *dahpa 'bachelor'
- *za 'child'
- *nan 'friend'
- *b-re 'husband'
- *dahme 'maiden'
- *r-min 'name'
- *r-mi; *ruː 'person'
- *s-lepa 'man, male human'
- *miːma 'woman, female human' < *mi 'person' + *ma 'female'
- *nana 'sister (older)'
- *nam 'sister (younger)'
- *nəŋ 'thou'
- *dzya 'wife'
- C. Foodstuff
- *bəhres 'bread'
- *tsip 'curry'
- *r-zəm 'food'
- *s-ŋən 'herbs'
- *raŋrəi 'millet'
- *r-mo 'mushroom'
- *hek 'parched grain'
- *tuk 'poison'
- *(ya)kaŋ 'rice (cooked)'
- *plima 'wheat'
- D. Animal names or animal products
- *səhr 'antelope'
- *nim 'bear'
- *r-pen 'bedbug'
- *b-zin 'bee'
- *bwa 'bird'
- *s-puŋ 'chick'
- *gəl 'boar (wild)'
- *b-s-rut 'bug'
- *s-raŋ 'cat'
- *har 'cow'
- *kaːh 'dog'
- *ŋah 'fish'
- *tek 'frog'
- *ra 'goat'
- *r-ta 'horse'
- *r-pəti 'leech'
- *la 'leopard'
- *syar 'louse'
- *s-p-yu; *s-p-ya 'monkey'
- *srəm 'otter'
- *b-rəhŋ 'pheasant'
- *wə 'pig'
- *bi 'rat'
- *luk 'sheep'
- *guhl 'snake'
- *daŋ 'python, constricting snake'
- *p-s-yap 'squirrel (flying)'
- *s-kyar 'woodpecker'
- *p-sən 'wool'
- E. Natural objects or phenomena; the inanimate landscape; vegetable and mineral kingdoms
- *r-plah 'ashes'
- *kər 'branch'
- *r-pup 'cave'
- *la 'day'
- *tshyam 'a certain day'
- *b-rih 'dirt'
- *r-gəm 'earth'
- *rihm 'evening'
- *ehŋ 'field'
- *baŋ 'a field, meadow, bowl shaped valley'
- *meh 'fire'
- *p-set 'fruit'
- *tshi 'grass'
- *kuŋ 'hole'
- *dzəhŋ 'iron'
- *s-la 'leaf'
- *r-nahm 'low country'
- *p-s-ya + *hwot 'moon'
- *goŋ 'mountain'
- *rik; *mun 'night'
- *r-wa 'rain'
- *bəih 'river'
- *yem 'road'
- *s-rin 'root'
- *sa + *pik 'salt'
- *nup 'set (sun)'
- *saŋ 'shadow'
- *nəm 'sky'
- *mihkut 'smoke' < *meːh 'fire' + *ku 'smoke'
- *r-pom 'snow'
- *səro 'star'
- *r-dzuht 'stick'
- *luŋ 'stone'
- *nəmi(y) 'sun'
- *b-zu 'thorn'
- *siŋ 'tree'
- *riːh 'water'
- *rihmun 'cooking water' < *riːh 'water' + *mun 'warm'
- *rəhm 'weed'
- F. Artifacts and social organization
- *r-wan 'arrowhead'
- *r-wa 'axe'
- *r-beh(k) 'basket'
- *li 'bow'
- *tshəm 'bridge'
- *pəsi(-s) 'broom'
- *kwa 'cloth'
- *yahm 'door'
- *b-rihŋ 'drum'
- *'gor 'circle'
- *muhthap 'hearth' < *muh 'burn' + *thap 'hearth'
- *zihm 'house'
- *r-bəŋ 'lower storey of house; cattle byre'
- *khor 'knife'
- *gur 'load'
- *tən 'sleeping mat'
- *b-lo 'large bamboo mat'
- *tshum 'mortar'
- *r-gəp 'a small needle'
- *r-khap 'a large needle'
- *b-zəhn 'net'
- *r-gum 'pillow'
- *gohr 'plow'
- *b-dza 'pot'
- *p-sip 'sheath'
- *tsihŋ 'snare'
- *gel 'spirit'
- *naŋkhar; *nam 'village'
- *ehn 'work'
- *kum 'yoke'
- G. Spatial/directional
- *glahŋ 'across'
- *chin 'behind'
- *khar 'center'
- *me 'down'
- *s-ŋa 'front'
- *thək 'upright'
- *a-sniŋ 'year'
- *rta-sniŋ 'last year'
- *pərniŋ 'next year'
- H. Numerals and quantifiers
- *tə 'one'
- *nehs 'two'
- *sohm 'three'
- *b-zi 'four'
- *r-ŋa 'five'
- I. Verbs of utterance, body position or function
- *sən; *so 'awaken'
- *klik 'cry'
- *eh 'defecate'
- *si 'die'
- *b-yi 'fart'
- *sas 'laugh'
- *p-s-rat 'to play'
- *b-s-res 'toy, plaything'
- *nah 'rest'
- *tsuŋ 'sit'
- *r-ŋəhl; *em; *ruk ~ *ru-t 'sleep'
- *s-ip 'to put to sleep'
- *p-tshis 'sneeze'
- *s-paŋ 'speak'
- *tsyahŋ 'stand'
- *kəlet 'tickle'
- *r-dzihs 'urinate'
- *who-t 'vomit' < CAUS. of wohs 'to spurt out'
- *gəhr 'weep'
- J. Verbs of motion
- *kles 'arrive'
- *rə-t 'bring'
- *plu-s 'climb'
- *huŋ 'come'
- *plu-s 'emerge'
- *s-plu-t 'cause to emerge, expel'
- *te-s 'fall'
- *s-bur 'fly'
- *z-ba 'go'
- *b-la 'graze'
- *mohŋ 'hide'
- *zok 'run'
- K. Verbs of emotion, cognition, perception
- *r-məŋ 'dream'
- *p-tshet 'fear'
- *s-meŋ 'forget'
- *that 'hear'
- *thas 'to be heard, audible'
- *sən 'know'
- *r-ses 'something, to know how'
- *r-sək 'proud'
- *rəhŋ 'see'
- *p-tsyu 'to look'
- *s-ŋər; *s-nəm 'smell'
- *b-ris 'tingle'
- L. Stative verbs with human patients
- *məhŋ 'drunk'
- *sot 'fat'
- *kre 'hunger'
- *na 'ill'
- *so 'itchy'
- *tshaŋ 'pure'
- *tsos 'thirst'
- M. Stative verbs with non-human patients
- *pək 'bad'
- *li 'be'
- *p-se 'bear fruit'
- *s-ta-s 'become'
- *ka 'bitter'
- *pak 'broken'
- *mom 'bud'
- *p-set 'bud'
- *r-pu-s 'burst'
- *zihm; *gim 'cold'
- *s-ta 'collapsed'
- *s-kluŋ 'detach'
- *thəŋ 'dried'
- *yək 'full'
- *p-tsa 'good'
- *s-len 'greasy'
- *piŋ 'green'
- *gis < *s-lis 'heavy'
- *s-gwaŋ 'hole'
- *b-rah 'hot'
- *wyi 'leak'
- *bom 'light'
- *s-lo; *b-re 'long'
- *dzöhl 'loose'
- *mah 'lost'
- *s-dem ~ *them 'low'
- *khət 'matched'
- *sahr 'new'
- *gyahm 'red'
- *mihn 'ripe'
- *tsik 'rotten'
- *lum 'round'
- *p-tsha 'sharp'
- *tun 'short'
- *zim 'small'
- *b-sir 'sour'
- *tuk 'spicy'
- *sli-s 'stale'
- *b-rehk 'sweet'
- *ruhŋ 'thick'
- *plek 'thin'
- *wa 'to be thin (esp. of boards)'
- *mun 'warm'
- *pal 'white'
- *plaŋ 'bright, illuminated'
- N. Action verbs with human agent
- *s-po 'beat'
- *ŋih 'beg'
- *kəi 'bite'
- *s-mut 'blow'
- *phut 'to blow with bellows'
- *r-lap 'bore'
- *s-kle(t) 'break'
- *hip 'burn'
- *r-duhp 'butt'
- *ləhŋ 'buy'
- *b-lot 'to lend to someone'
- *b-los 'to borrow'
- *guhr 'carry'
- *kloh 'catch'
- *kwa-t 'clothe'
- *r-sat 'comb'
- *phin 'cook'
- *mihn 'to cook until done'
- *tso 'to boil'
- *kəp 'cover'
- *pəl 'cut'
- *kri 'to cut meat'
- *p-syah 'dance'
- *goh 'dig'
- *gəp 'draw water'
- *zya 'eat'
- *kəi 'to eat things which require chewing'
- *hat 'extract'
- *z-dət 'find'
- *z-dup 'gather'
- *ya 'give'
- *p-set 'grind'
- *r-guh 'guard'
- *tup 'hammer'
- *tsho 'herd'
- *phok 'husk'
- *lut 'insert'
- *tak 'install'
- *r-then 'kick'
- *saht 'kill'
- *kek 'ladle'
- *b-rihm 'lay wall'
- *lep 'lick'
- *dzət 'make'
- *pek 'milk'
- *z-bra-t 'mix'
- *pho-t 'open'
- *phok 'pay'
- *tik 'pick up'
- *s-krəp 'pin closed'
- *p-tsil 'pinch'
- *p-sut 'plug'
- *tek 'press'
- *dzəhk 'put'
- *nat 'to set down, place'
- *ra-s 'release'
- *phit 'remove from fire'
- *tsep 'ride'
- *s-ŋo 'roast'
- *b-zu 'rub'
- *p-sil 'to scrub'
- *s-lom 'scald'
- *sim 'scoop'
- *s-pik 'scrape'
- *pur 'to scratch'
- *s-nan 'seize'
- *p-yet 'sell'
- *s-priŋ 'send'
- *ruhp 'sew'
- *p-yen 'shave'
- *gap 'shoot'
- *s-tən 'show'
- *kok 'skin, peel'
- *phyak 'snap'
- *tshim 'soak'
- *was 'sow seed'
- *khəl 'spin wool'
- *p-si 'split firewood'
- *tser 'squeeze'
- *ku 'steal'
- *rok 'to ransack, rummage'
- *r-wal 'stir'
- *on 'stop'
- *sit 'sweep'
- *p-sik ~ *p-sis 'teach'
- *p-tsit 'tear'
- *khya 'throw'
- *s-ki 'tie'
- *s-to 'trade'
- *kil 'twist'
- *s-krup 'unfold'
- *bohk 'uproot'
- *tse 'wash'
- *r-za 'to wash hair'
- *rəhk 'weave'
- *rihn 'to set up a loom'
- *hul 'whet'
Further reading[edit]
- Wilde, Christopher P. 2017. A Phonological Comparison of Gamale, Sheram and Ghusbang – Three Kham Varieties. JSEALS Volume 10.1 (2017).
- Moore, Glen M. 2020. A Description of Selected Aspects of Gamale Kham Verbal Morphology. pdf available for download on academia.edu
References[edit]
- ^ Eastern Parbate Kham at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Gamale Kham at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Sheshi Kham at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Western Parbate Pang at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) - ^ a b c Watters, David E., 1944- (2004). A dictionary of Kham : Taka dialect (a Tibeto-Burman language of Nepal). Kathmandu: Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University. ISBN 99933-52-65-9. OCLC 62895872.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Wilde, Christopher P. (2017-06-01). "A Phonological Comparison of Gamale, Sheram and Ghusbang – Three Kham Varieties". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 10 (1): 67–90. ISSN 1836-6821.
- ^ Wilde, Christopher P. (2016). "Gamale Kham phonology revisited, with Devanagari-based orthography and lexicon". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. ISSN 1836-6821.
- Kansakar, Tej R. (July 1993), "The Tibeto-Burman Languages of Nepal, A General Survey" (PDF), Contributions to Nepalese Studies, Kirtipur, Nepal: Tribhuvan University, 20 (2): 165–173, retrieved April 10, 2011
- Watters, David E. (2002), A grammar of Kham, Cambridge grammatical descriptions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-81245-3
External links[edit]
- List of Gamale Kham words at Wiktionary, the free dictionary
![]() |
Sheshi Kham test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator |