Multan Sun Temple

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Sun Temple of Multan
Religion
AffiliationHinduism
DistrictMultan
DeitySurya
Location
LocationMultan
StatePunjab
CountryPakistan Pakistan
Architecture
TypeDomed.

The Sun Temple of Multan was a temple dedicated to Surya, the Hindu Sun God, in the city of Multan. It commanded significant fame in the subcontinent as a place of pilgrimage and wealth under Hindu as well as Islamic rule before being destroyed c. 990 CE by a new dynasty of Ismaili rulers.

Hindu Legends[edit]

The earliest extant Hindu text to mention of a solar cult is Samba Purana (c. 7th–8th century CE).[1] The associated legend made its way into the Bhavishya Purana and even a twelfth century inscription in Eastern India.[1][2]

After being cursed into a leper, Samba had urged Krishna to restore his youth.[2] Krishna expressed his inability and asserted that only the Sun-God had such abilities.[2] So, acting upon the advice of Narada, Samba left for the forests of Mitravan on the banks of Chandrabhaga, which already served as His sacred lands.[2] There, he propitiated Sun into appearing before himself and secured boons of cure and eternal fame.[2] In return, Samba had to set up solar temples; Bhavishya Purana mentions that He had specifically instructed to be installed at the banks of Chandrabhaga, as His perpetual abode.[2] The next day, Samba received an icon of the Sun-God while bathing.[2] Subsequently, the first Sun-temple was established in Sambapura.[2]

Sambapura has been since identified with Multan—and the temple with the eponymous institution—but Heinrich von Stietencron disagrees.[2] He notes that formerly, it was not the Chandrabhaga but Ravi that passed by Multan; the original town must be at some yet-undetermined site.[2][a]

History[edit]

The antecedents of the temple remain unknown to historical certainty and André Wink speculates it to have borne Buddhist and Zoroastrian influences.[3]

Hindu-Buddhist Rule[edit]

During Hsuen Tsang's visit in 641 AD, it was the only solar temple in Sindh; for a comparison, Tsang had noted 299 Brahminical temples, a majority of which were of Saivite sect.[4] He wrote:

[V]ery magnificent and profusely decorated. The image of the Surya-deva is cast in yellow gold and ornamented with rare gems. Women play their music, light their torches, offer their flowers and perfumes to it. [..] The kings and high families of the five Indies never fail to make their offerings of gens and precious stones.

They have founded a house of mercy, in which they provide food and drink, and medicines for the poor and sick, affording succor and sustenance. Men from all countries come here to offer up their prayers; there are always some thousands doing so. On the four sides of the temple are tanks with flowering groves where one can wander about without restraint.

Umayyad Conquest[edit]

After the conquest of Sindh by the Umayyad Caliphate in 8th century AD under the leadership of Muhammad bin Qasim, the Brahmin dynasty was replaced; Multan fell after a long siege.[4][5] Al-Biruni writes that the Sun Temple was spared after bin-Qasim came to know about its prominent role in the regional economy but a piece of cow-flesh was mockingly hang around the neck; a Sunni mosque was also commissioned.[5][6] In contrast, Al-Baladhuri's Futuh al-Buldan (c. mid-9th century AD) did not speak about any defilation or erection of mosque; he merely noted that all wealth—thirteen thousand and two hundred maunds of gold[7]—were confiscated from what was the preeminent site of pilgrimage for local Sindhis, who used to shave their beards and head before circumambulating it and offering riches.[5][b]

Centuries later, Ibn al-Jawzi—a noted polemicist against heretical practices (c. 13th century AD)[8]—would note Qasim to have had spared the temple in lieu of rights to a third of its revenues.[5][c] Pilgrims were compelled to pay a sum between one hundred and ten thousand dirhams, adjudged according to their financial capacity: a third went to the Muslims per Qasim's agreement, another third went to the maintenance of city facilities, and the rest went to the priests.[5][d] In Chach Nama, we have construction of the temple attributed to Jibawin, a devout Brahmin ruler who had supposedly buried enviable treasure underneath it; the idol was so lively that Qasim mistook it for a man, and he obtained thirteen thousand and two hundred mans of gold upon excavation.[9]

This loot of treasures would lead to Multan being regarded as the "Frontiers of gold" by Arab geographers for centuries to come.[5]

Arab Governors[edit]

Multiple Muslim sources—from voyager-historians like Al-Istakhri, Al-Maqdisi, Al-Masudi and Ibn Hawqal to encyclopedists like Ibn al-Nadim—note of the temple esp. in the late Abbasid phase.[4] Istakhri (early 10th century AD[10]) noted the temple to have been located in the most populous part of Multan between the city's ivory and copper-smith bazaars.[6] The idol—wholly draped in red leather except for the eyes, studded with gems[e]—was placed under the cupola and commanded pan-sectarian reverence.[6] Adorning a crown of gold, it sat in a "quadrangular position" on a brick throne with closed fists rested on knees.[6]

Istakhri also described how the temple was leveraged by the Muslim rulers as an indemnity against potential invasion by neighbouring Hindu powers.[3][6] Al Masudi, a contemporary of Istakhri,[11] reiterates this strategical use of the temple; besides, he notes the ritual offerings—consisting of money, precious stones, perfumes, and especially aloe-wood of Kumar—as the greatest contributor to state revenues.[3][6] Hawqal, yet another contemporary,[12] reproduced Istakhri's narrative in toto but supplanted some details from his own travels: all revenue were forfeited to the Amir who ensured that the priests had sufficient means.[5][6] Al-Nadim's (10th century AD[13]) account in the encyclopaedia, noted hordes of diseased people to be among its devotees who prayed for a quick recovery.[4]

Overall, the temple continued to maintain its prominence under patronage by Muslim Governors, in what Finbarr B. Flood, an art-historian, dubs as a regime of "mercantile cosmopolitanism";[f] Y. Friedmann, a scholar of Islamic History, interprets the evidence to attest to the accordance of Hindus with the status of dhimmi.[5][14] Despite, when compared to the days immediately after the conquest, there had been a total loss of financial autonomy.[5]

Ismaili Emirs and Destruction[edit]

With the increasing influence of Fatimid Caliphate in the frontiers of Persia, arrived Jalam b. Shayban of the Qarmatian sect in 959 A.D, to replace the old Da'ai.[g] Shayban took to preaching Isma'ilism and obtained unprecedented success[h]; eventually, he would usurp royal authority and form his own Emirate. It was during the later part of his rule[i], that the Sun Temple was destroyed and its priests killed.[15][14] The old mosque was also shut, which would be only restored by Mahmud of Ghazni during the sacking of Sindh, c. 1005.[15][14]

Al-Biruni visited Multan in early 11th century, then under the Ghaznavids, and noted that the ruins were no longer visited by Hindu pilgrims.[3][6] Muhammad al-Idrisi's geographical compendium (mid 12th century AD[16]) not only reproduced Istakhri's version in entirety but also added that the temple dome was gilded and the walls were coloured; also, the idol was claimed to have four arms.[6] Ibn al-Athir, who probably did not visit Multan, deemed the idol to be of Job.[7] Even well into the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun will note of Multan as the "home of the great idol."[7]

Probable restoration and re-destruction[edit]

Jean de Thévenot visiting Multan in 1666, under Aurzangzeb's rule (1658–1707), mentions a Hindu temple[j] attracting pilgrims from far and wide, whose offerings contributed to the provincial exchequer – the description of the idol ran similar to Istakhri's though he claimed ignorance about the identity of deity.[6]

Alexander Cunningham, visiting Multan in 1853, noted local tradition to blame Aurangzeb for destructing the temple and commissioning a Jami Masjid, in place;[k] further, the Sikhs were held to have converted the local tomb of Shams-i Tabrizi to a Gurdwara in a retaliatory act, when Ranjit Singh occupied the town in 1818.[18] Also, the Jami Masjid was re-provisioned into a powder magazine by Diwan Mulraj's forces during the Siege of Multan, which got blown up only on the morning of 30 December 1848 upon being shelled by East India Company.[18][19][l] Despite, no inhabitant was able to identify the site of the temple to Cunningham.[18]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Alternatively, the Puranic legend is quite recent.
  2. ^ For details on the production of Baladhuri's text and its sources, consult Lynch, Ryan J. (August 2021). Arab Conquests and Early Islamic Historiography: The Futuh al-Buldan of al-Baladhuri. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 9780755644681.
  3. ^ The Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan is held to have had personally consented to this proposal.[5] However, this is an anachronism; the Caliph was long-dead by the time Qasim had his eyes set on Indian frontiers.[5]
  4. ^ Muhammad b. 'Ali al-Shatibi al-Maghribi's (fl.1465 AD) history of Arabia notes Qasim to have spared a temple in lieu of monetary gains and reproduces the same details.[5] Except a third of revenue did not go to Muslims but to the poor.[5]
  5. ^ Al-biruni would note the gems to be rubies but he did not see the (since-destructed) idol.
  6. ^ A tenth-century bronze idol of Surya from Mansura attests to the continuity of the solar cult even under Muslim rule.[14] Mints of Arabic Governors had both Hindu and Islamic inscriptions on the obverse, probably pointing to a heteropraxic governance.[14]
  7. ^ Officially, the older da'ai was replaced for being "too syncretic." However, the real reason had probably got to do with a doctrinal conflict.
  8. ^ Al-Muqaddasi, visiting Multan in 985, found the majority to be Shi'as.
  9. ^ The Sun Temple is mentioned in al-Muqaddasi's chronicle of 985. We do not know about the date of Shayban's death but his successor Shaykh Hamid entered into a truce with Sabuktigin in 991. So, the temple must have been demolished sometime in-between.
  10. ^ The precise term was "Catry Pagoda".
  11. ^ Aurangzeb is also reputed of having massacred thousand of Hindus in Multan for desecration of Muslim shrines.[17] In his days as a Governor of Multan (1648–1652), he had fostered cordial relationships with prominent local Muslims to the extent that Dara Shukoh failed to win Multan's support for his bid to the Mughal throne, despite offering to pay twenty five thousand rupees to the Shrine of Bahauddin Zakariya.
  12. ^ The explosion destroyed many other structures in the fort, combusted the city-granary, and killed hundreds.[19] Charlie Pollard, an officer of the Bengal Engineers wrote:[19]

    I saw an extraordinary dense mass, black as ink, with a clearly defined outline, rising slowly out of the fort. Gradually as it rose the upper part spread out assuming the form of a gigantic tree, but losing its sharp outline in upper air till it became a dark brown cloud hanging as a pall over the fort and city.

    It was evident too that within that dark mass were certain solid bodies, whether the debris of building or human beings it was impossible to say, hurled some hundreds of feet upwards and looking like specks in the air...

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Bronkhorst, Johannes (2014–2015). "The Magas". Brahmavidyā: The Adyar Library Bulletin. 78–79: 459–486.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cummins, Joan Marie (2001). Dual darśana: Re-addressing the Sūrya icon (Thesis). Columbia University.
  3. ^ a b c d Wink, André (1997). Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest. 2, Volume 1. BRILL. pp. 187–188. ISBN 9789004095090.
  4. ^ a b c d MacLean, Derryl N. (1989). Religion and Society in Arab Sind. BRILL. ISBN 9789004085510.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Friedmann, Yohanan (1972). "The Temple of Multān: A note on early Muslim attitudes to idolatry". Israel Oriental Studies. II: 176–182. ISSN 0334-4401.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Mirchandani, B. D. (1968). "Sun Temple of Multan". Journal of Indian History. 46 (2).
  7. ^ a b c Ali, Hassan (December 2015). "SurajKund: A Lost Icon in the hagiography of Shah Shams in Multan" (PDF). Journal of Historical Studies. 1 (2): 80–94.
  8. ^ Laoust, H. (24 April 2012), "Ibn al-D̲j̲awzī", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill, retrieved 6 March 2022
  9. ^ Asif, Manan Ahmed (2016). A Book of Conquest: The Chachnama and Muslim Origins in South Asia. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674660113.
  10. ^ Miquel, A. (24 April 2012), "al-Iṣṭak̲h̲rī", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill, retrieved 6 March 2022
  11. ^ Pellat, Ch (24 April 2012), "al-Masʿūdī", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill, retrieved 6 March 2022
  12. ^ Miquel, A. (24 April 2012), "Ibn Ḥawḳal", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill, retrieved 6 March 2022
  13. ^ Fück, J. W. (24 April 2012), "Ibn al-Nadīm", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill, retrieved 6 March 2022
  14. ^ a b c d e Flood, Finbarr Barry (2009). Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter. Princeton University Press. pp. 19, 37, 39, 42, 155, 279, 297. ISBN 9780691125947.
  15. ^ a b Jain, Meenakshi, ed. (2011). The India They Saw – Foreign Accounts: 8th to 15th Centuries. Delhi: Ocean Books (p) Ltd. pp. 138–139, 226. ISBN 9788184301076.
  16. ^ Oman, G. (24 April 2012), "al-Idrīsī", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill, retrieved 6 March 2022
  17. ^ Ross, David (1883). The Land of the Five Rivers and Sindh: Historical & Descriptive Sketches. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 101.
  18. ^ a b c Cunnngham, Alexander (1875). ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA VOL.5. The Superintendent of Government, Calcutta. p. 119.
  19. ^ a b c Singh, Amarpal (2017). The Second Anglo-Sikh War: 1848–49. Delhi: HarperCollins. pp. 504–506. ISBN 9789352773282.
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