Portal:Modern history
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Human history (or world history) is the narrative of humanity's past. It is understood through archaeology, anthropology, genetics, linguistics, and (since the advent of writing) primary and secondary source documents.
Humanity's written history was preceded by its prehistory, beginning with the Palaeolithic ("Old Stone Age") era. This was followed by the Neolithic ("New Stone Age") era, which saw the Agricultural Revolution begin in the Near East's Fertile Crescent between 10,000 and 5,000 BCE. During this period, humans began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals. As agriculture advanced, most humans transitioned from a nomadic to a settled lifestyle as farmers in permanent settlements. The relative security and increased productivity provided by farming allowed communities to expand into increasingly larger units, fostered by advances in transportation.
Whether in prehistoric or historic times, people always needed to be near reliable sources of drinking water. Settlements developed as early as 4,000 BCE in Iran, Mesopotamia, the Indus River valley on the Indian subcontinent, as well as on the banks of Egypt's Nile River, along China's rivers and the short rivers that flow from the Andes in the central coast of Peru. As farming developed, grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labour to store food between growing seasons. Labour divisions led to the rise of a leisured upper class and the development of cities, which provided the foundation for civilization. The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of accounting and writing. Hinduism developed in the late Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent. The Axial Age witnessed the introduction of religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and Jainism. (Full article...)
Selected articles -
Fin de siècle (French: [fɛ̃ də sjɛkl]) is a French term meaning "end of century", a term which typically encompasses both the meaning of the similar English idiom turn of the century and also makes reference to the closing of one era and onset of another. The term is typically used to refer to the end of the 19th century. This period was widely thought to be a period of social degeneracy, but at the same time a period of hope for a new beginning. The "spirit" of fin de siècle often refers to the cultural hallmarks that were recognized as prominent in the 1880s and 1890s, including ennui, cynicism, pessimism, and "a widespread belief that civilization leads to decadence".
The term fin de siècle is commonly applied to French art and artists, as the traits of the culture first appeared there, but the movement affected many European countries. The term becomes applicable to the sentiments and traits associated with the culture, as opposed to focusing solely on the movement's initial recognition in France. The ideas and concerns developed by fin de siècle artists provided the impetus for movements such as symbolism and modernism.
The themes of fin de siècle political culture were very controversial and have been cited as a major influence on fascism and as a generator of the science of geopolitics, including the theory of Lebensraum. Professor of Historical Geography at the University of Nottingham, Michael Heffernan, and Mackubin Thomas Owens wrote about the origins of geopolitics: (Full article...)- Since attaining independence from the United Kingdom on 10 October 1970, Fijian history has been marked by exponential economic growth up to 1987, followed by relative stagnation, caused to a large extent by political instability following two military coups in 1987 and a civilian putsch in 2000. This was followed by another military coup in 2006. Rivalry between indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians, rather than ideological differences, have been the most visible cleavage of Fijian politics. Later in 2020, Fiji was hit by a coronavirus pandemic originated from Wuhan, China affecting the economy and the daily lives of the people. (Full article...)
The Restoration (Spanish: Restauración), or Bourbon Restoration (Spanish: Restauración borbónica), is the name given to the period that began on 29 December 1874—after a coup d'état by Martínez Campos ended the First Spanish Republic and restored the monarchy under Alfonso XII—and ended on 14 April 1931 with the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic.
After almost a century of political instability and many civil wars, the aim of the Restoration was to create a new political system, which ensured stability by the practice of turnismo. This was the deliberate rotation of the Liberal and Conservative parties in the government, often achieved through electoral fraud. Opposition to the system came from Republicans, Socialists, Anarchists, Basque and Catalan nationalists, and Carlists. (Full article...)- A modern language is any human language that is currently in use. The term is used in language education to distinguish between languages which are used for day-to-day communication (such as French and German) and dead classical languages such as Latin and Classical Chinese, which are studied for their cultural or linguistic value. SIL Ethnologue defines a living language as "one that has at least one speaker for whom it is their first language" (see also Language § Linguistic diversity). (Full article...)
- History of modern Serbia or modern history of Serbia covers the history of Serbia since national awakening in the early 19th century from the Ottoman Empire, then Yugoslavia, to the present day Republic of Serbia. The era follows the early modern history of Serbia. (Full article...)
Gordon Brown (Prime Minister 2007–2010), Tony Blair (Prime Minister 1997–2007), John Major (Prime Minister 1990–1997), Nick Clegg (Deputy Prime Minister 2010–2015) and David Cameron (Prime Minister 2010–2016) pictured together in 2011
Margaret Thatcher gained power in 1979 and began 18 years of Conservative government. Victory in the Falklands War (1982) and the government's strong opposition to trade unions helped lead the Conservative Party to another three terms in government. Thatcher initially pursued monetarist policies and went on to privatise many of Britain's nationalised companies such as British Telecom, British Gas Corporation, British Airways and British Steel Corporation. She kept the National Health Service. The controversial Community Charge (commonly called the "Poll Tax"), used to fund local government was unpopular and the Conservatives removed Thatcher as Prime Minister in 1990, although Michael Heseltine, the man who did much to undermine her, did not personally benefit from taking her out.
Thatcher's successor, John Major replaced the Poll Tax with the Council Tax and oversaw successful British involvement in the Gulf War. Despite a recession, Major led the Conservatives to a surprise victory in 1992. The events of Black Wednesday in 1992, party disunity over the European Union and several scandals involving Conservative politicians led to Labour under Tony Blair winning a landslide election victory in 1997. Labour had shifted its policies closer to the political centre, under the new slogan 'New Labour'. The Bank of England was given independence over monetary policy and Scotland and Wales were given a devolved Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly respectively, whilst London wide local government was also reestablished in form of a Assembly and Mayor. A devolved power sharing Northern Ireland Executive was established in 1998, believed by many to be the end of The Troubles.
Blair led Britain into the Afghanistan and Iraq War before leaving office in 2007, when he was succeeded by his Chancellor, Gordon Brown. A global recession in 2008–10 led to Labour's defeat in the 2010 election. It was replaced by a Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government, headed by David Cameron, that pursued a series of public spending cuts with the intention of reducing the budget deficit. In June 2016, the UK in an advisory referendum chose to leave the European Union, which led to Cameron's resignation. Cameron was succeeded by his Home Secretary, Theresa May. (Full article...)- The 21st (twenty-first) century is the current century in the Anno Domini era or Common Era, under the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 2001 (MMI) and will end on December 31, 2100 (MMC).
Marking the beginning of the 21st century was the rise of a global economy and Third World consumerism, deepening global concern over terrorism after September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and increased private enterprise. The NATO interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq of the early 2000s and overthrowing several regimes during the Arab Spring of the early 2010s led to mixed outcomes in the Arab world, resulting in several civil wars and political instability.
The United States has remained the global superpower, while China is now considered an emerging global superpower.
In 2017, 49.3% of the world's population lived in "some form of democracy", though only 4.5% lived in "full democracies". The United Nations estimates that by 2050 two thirds of the world’s population will be urbanized; an inverse of a century ago when less than one-third lived in cities. (Full article...) 
A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835.
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Great Britain, continental Europe, and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth.
Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and many of the technological and architectural innovations were of British origin. By the mid-18th century, Britain was the world's leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean, and with major military and political hegemony on the Indian subcontinent; particularly with the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal, through the activities of the East India Company. The development of trade and the rise of business were among the major causes of the Industrial Revolution. (Full article...)
The mission at 312 Azusa Street in 1907, Los Angeles, California, the United States, considered to be the birthplace of Pentecostalism.
The history of modern Christianity concerns the Christian religion from the beginning of the 15th century to the end of World War II. It can be divided into the early modern period and the late modern period. The history of Christianity in the early modern period coincides with the Age of Exploration, and is usually taken to begin with the Protestant Reformation c. 1517–1525 (usually rounded down to 1500) and ending in the late 18th century with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the events leading up to the French Revolution of 1789. It includes the Protestant Reformation, the Counter-Reformation and the Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery. Christianity expanded throughout the world during the Age of Exploration. Christianity has thus become the world's largest religion. (Full article...)- According to most scholars the history of modern Egypt dates from the start of Muhammad Ali's rule in 1805 and his launching of Egypt's modernization project that involved building a new army and suggesting a new map for the country, though the definition of Egypt's modern history has varied in accordance with different definitions of modernity. Some scholars date it as far back as 1516 with the Ottomans' defeat of the Mamlūks in 1516–17.
Muhammad Ali's dynasty became practically independent from Ottoman rule, following his military campaigns against the Empire and his ability to enlist large-scale armies, allowing him to control both Egypt and parts of North Africa and the Middle East. In 1882, the Khedivate of Egypt became part of the British sphere of influence in the region, a situation that conflicted with its position as an autonomous vassal state of the Ottoman Empire.
The country became a British protectorate in 1915 and achieved full independence in 1922, becoming a kingdom under the rule of Muhammad Ali's dynasty, which lasted until 1952.
Gamal Abdel Nasser ended monarchical rule and established a republic in Egypt, known as the Republic of Egypt, following the 1952 Egyptian revolution. Egypt was ruled autocratically by three presidents over the following six decades: by Nasser from 1954 until his death in 1970, by Anwar Sadat from 1971 until his assassination in 1981, and by Hosni Mubarak from 1981 until his resignation in the face of the 2011 Egyptian revolution. (Full article...) - The Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), popularly known as the war on terror, is the term that refers to an ongoing international military campaign launched by the United States government following the September 11 attacks. The targets of the campaign are primarily Islamist groups located throughout the world, with the most prominent groups being al-Qaeda, as well as the Islamic State and their various franchise groups.
The naming of the campaign uses a metaphor of war to refer to a variety of actions that do not constitute a specific war as traditionally defined. 43rd President of the United States George W. Bush first used the term "war on terrorism" on 16 September 2001, and then "war on terror" a few days later in a formal speech to Congress. In the latter speech, President Bush stated, "Our enemy is a radical network of terrorists and every government that supports them." The term was originally used with a particular focus on countries associated with al-Qaeda. The term was immediately criticized by people such as Richard B. Myers, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and more nuanced terms subsequently came to be used by the Bush administration to publicly define the international campaign led by the United States. While it was never used as a formal designation of U.S. operations in internal government documentation, a Global War on Terrorism Service Medal was issued.
U.S. president Barack Obama, whose administration sought to avoid use of the term since taking office, announced on 23 May 2013 that the Global War on Terror was over, saying the military and intelligence agencies will not wage war against a tactic but will instead focus on a specific group of networks determined to destroy the U.S. On 28 December 2014, the Obama administration (which preferred to use the term Overseas Contingency Operation) announced the end of the combat role of the U.S.-led mission in Afghanistan; however, the U.S. continued to play a major role in the War in Afghanistan, and in 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump expanded the American military presence in Afghanistan. The rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) led to the global Operation Inherent Resolve, and an international campaign to destroy ISIL. (Full article...) - In many periodizations of human history, the late modern period followed the early modern period. It began approximately in the mid-18th century and depending on the author either ended with the beginning of contemporary history after World War II, or includes that period up to the present day. Notable historical milestones included the American Revolution, the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, and the Russian Revolution. It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world's population to reach 1 billion; the next billion came just over a century later, in 1927. (Full article...)
The Italian colonization of Libya began in 1911 and it lasted until 1943. The country, which was previously an Ottoman possession, was occupied by Italy in 1911 after the Italo-Turkish War, which resulted in the establishment of two colonies: Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica. In 1934, the two colonies were merged into one colony which was named the colony of Italian Libya. In 1937, this colony was divided into four provinces, and in 1939, the coastal provinces became a part of metropolitan Italy. The colonization lasted until Libya's occupation by Allied forces in 1943, but it was not until the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty that Italy officially renounced all of its claims to Libya's territory. (Full article...)- The 17th century lasted from January 1, 1601 (MDCI), to December 31, 1700 (MDCC). It falls into the Early Modern period of Europe and in that continent (whose impact on the world was increasing) was characterized by the Baroque cultural movement, the latter part of the Spanish Golden Age, the Dutch Golden Age, the French Grand Siècle dominated by Louis XIV, the Scientific Revolution, the world's first public company and megacorporation known as the Dutch East India Company, and according to some historians, the General Crisis.
A scene on the ice, Dutch Republic, first half of 17th century
From the mid-17th century, European politics were increasingly dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. The semi-feudal territorial French nobility was weakened and subjugated to the power of an absolute monarchy through the reinvention of the Palace of Versailles from a hunting lodge to a gilded prison, in which a greatly expanded royal court could be more easily kept under surveillance. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded. It was during this century that the English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France.
By the end of the century, Europeans were aware of logarithms, electricity, the telescope and microscope, calculus, universal gravitation, Newton's Laws of Motion, air pressure and calculating machines due to the work of the first scientists of the Scientific Revolution, including Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, René Descartes, Pierre Fermat, Blaise Pascal, Robert Boyle, Christiaan Huygens, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Isaac Newton, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. It was also a period of development of culture in general (especially theater, music, visual arts and philosophy). (Full article...) - Habsburg Spain was at the height of its power and cultural influence at the beginning of the 17th century, but military, political, and economic difficulties were already being discussed within Spain. In the coming decades these difficulties grew and saw France gradually taking Spain's place as Europe's leading power through the later half of the century. Many different factors, including the decentralized political nature of Spain, inefficient taxation, a succession of weak kings, power struggles in the Spanish court and a tendency to focus on the American colonies instead of Spain's domestic economy, all contributed to the decline of the Habsburg rule of Spain.
The end of the century also brought the end of Habsburg rule. The 18th century began with the War of the Spanish Succession, which concluded in the establishment of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain. (Full article...)
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General images -
Maya observatory, Chichen Itza, Mexico (from Human history)
Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man (c. 1490), Renaissance Italy (from Human history)
World distribution of wealth and population in 2000. (from Contemporary history)
The first airplane, the Wright Flyer, flew, 1903. (from Human history)
A brass "Benin Bronze" from Nigeria (from Human history)
Hagia Sophia, in Istanbul, is among the most recognizable symbols of the Byzantine civilization. (from Human history)
A stamp commemorating Alexander Fleming. His discovery of penicillin had changed the world of modern medicine by introducing the age of antibiotics. (from 20th century)
The Buddha (from Human history)
Monumental Cuneiform inscription, Sumer, Mesopotamia, 26th century BCE (from Human history)
Charlie Chaplin in his 1921 film The Kid, with Jackie Coogan. (from 20th century)
Countries by real GDP growth rate in 2014. (Countries in brown were in recession.) (from Contemporary history)
Ralph Baer's Magnavox Odyssey, the first video game console, released in 1972. (from 20th century)
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), Turkey (from Human history)
The World Trade Center on fire and the Statue of Liberty. (from Contemporary history)
Elvis Presley in 1956, a leading figure of rock & roll and rockabilly. (from 20th century)
Hong Kong, under British administration from 1842 to 1997, is one of the original four Asian tigers. (from 20th century)
University of Timbuktu, Mali (from Human history)
Empires of the world in 1898 (from Human history)
Ming dynasty section, Great Wall of China (from Human history)
First flight of the Wright Flyer, December 17, 1903, Orville piloting, Wilbur running at wingtip. (from 20th century)
The Empire State Building is an iconic building of the 1930s. (from 20th century)
Obelisk of Axum, Ethiopia (from Human history)
The Pantheon in Rome, Italy, originally a Roman temple, now a Catholic church (from Human history)
Gutenberg Bible, ca. 1450, produced using movable type (from Human history)
Cave painting, Lascaux, France, c. 15,000 BCE (from Human history)
The pioneer of computer science, Alan Turing (from 20th century)
Machu Picchu, Inca Empire, Peru (from Human history)
China urbanized rapidly in the 21st century (Shanghai pictured). (from Human history)
Civilians (here, Mỹ Lai, Vietnam, 1968) suffered greatly in 20th-century wars. (from Human history)
Albert Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics. (from 20th century)
Notre-Dame de Paris in Paris, France: is among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of Christendom. (from Human history)
I and the Village, 1911, by Marc Chagall, a modern painter. (from 20th century)
Battle during 1281 Mongol invasion of Japan (from Human history)
Last Moon landing: Apollo 17 (1972) (from Human history)
World powers and empires in 1914, just before the First World War.(from 20th century)
(The Austro-Hungarian flag should be shown instead of the Austrian Empire's one)
Great Pyramids of Giza, Egypt (from Human history)
American Buzz Aldrin during the first moonwalk in 1969. The relatively young aerospace engineering industries rapidly grew in the 66 years after the Wright brothers' first flight. (from 20th century)
Pillar erected by India's Maurya Emperor Ashoka (from Human history)
Wheat yields greatly increased from the Green Revolution in the world's least developed countries. (from 20th century)
The Blue Marble, Earth as seen from Apollo 17 in December 1972. The photograph was taken by LMP Harrison Schmitt. The second half of the 20th century saw humanity's first space exploration. (from 20th century)
Ukraine, early days of the 1941 Nazi invasion. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people between 1941 and 1945, almost half of all World War II deaths. (from 20th century)
Map of territorial changes in Europe after World War I (as of 1923). (from 20th century)
1570 world map, showing Europeans' discoveries (from Human history)
Persepolis, Achaemenid Empire, 6th century BCE (from Human history)
A Visualization of the various routes through a portion of the Internet. Partial map of the Internet based in 2005. (from Contemporary history)
World population, 10,000 BCE – 2,000 CE (vertical population scale is logarithmic) (from Human history)
Atomic bombings: Hiroshima, Nagasaki, 1945 (from Human history)
Map of the British Empire (as of 1910). At its height, it was the largest empire in history. (from 20th century)
Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, founded 670 CE (from Human history)
The MOSFET (MOS transistor) is central to the Digital Revolution, and the most widely manufactured device in history. It was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in November 1959. (from 20th century)
Oil field in California, 1938.
The first modern oil well was drilled in 1848 by Russian engineer F.N. Semyonov, on the Apsheron Peninsula north-east of Baku. (from 20th century)
Martin Luther King Jr., an African American civil rights leader (Washington, August 1963) (from 20th century)
Watt's steam engine powered the Industrial Revolution. (from Human history)
U.S. Army troops in Kunar province (from Contemporary history)
Moai, Rapa Nui (Easter Island) (from Human history)
Taj Mahal, Mughal Empire, India (from Human history)
A prisoner being tortured in the Abu Ghraib prison (from Contemporary history)
Angkor Wat temple, Cambodia, early 12th century (from Human history)
Chennakesava Temple, Belur, India (from Human history)
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France
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Libya
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