Rajendra Chola I

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"Rajendra Chola" redirects here. For a son of Rajendra Chola I, see Rajendra Chola II.

Rajendra I
Parakesari, Yuddhamalla, Mummudi, Gangai Kondan, Kadaram Kondan, Jayasimha kula kaalan
Rajendra Chola (cropped).JPG
Sculpture of Rajendra I at Gangaikondacholapuram (Ariyalur District)
Chola Emperor
Reign1014 CE – 1044 CE[1]
PredecessorRajaraja I
SuccessorRajadhiraja I
Co-Regent of the Chola Empire
Reign1012 CE – 1014 CE
EmperorRajaraja I
SuccessorRajadhiraja I
King of Polonnaruwa
King of Ruhuna
Reign1017 CE – 1044 CE
PredecessorKassapa VI
SuccessorRajadhiraja I
BornMadhurandhagan [2]
971 CE
Thanjavur, Chola Empire (modern day Tamil Nadu, India)
Died1044 CE (aged 73)
Brahmadesam, Chola Empire (modern day Ambasamudram, Tamil Nadu, India)[3]
BurialEnd of 1044 CE
Brahmadesam, Tamil Nadu, India[3]
Spouse
  • Tribhuvana (Vanavan Mahadevi)
  • Puteri Onangki
  • Mukkokilan
  • Panchavan Mahadevi
  • Viramahadevi
Issue
DynastyChola
FatherRajaraja I
MotherVanavan Mahadevi alias Tribhuvana Mahadevi
ReligionHinduism
SignatureRajendra I's signature
List of Chola kings and emperors
Early Cholas
Interregnum (c. 200 – c. 848)
Medieval Cholas
Vijayalaya 848–871?
Aditya I 871–907
Parantaka I 907–955
Rajaditya Chola 935–949
Gandaraditya 949–962
Arinjaya 955–956
Parantaka II (Sundara) 950–980
Aditya II (Karikala) 966–971
Uttama 971–987
Rajaraja I 985–1014
Rajendra I 1012–1044
Rajadhiraja 1018–1054
Rajendra II 1051–1063
Rajamahendra 1060–1063
Virarajendra 1063–1070
Athirajendra 1067–1070
Later Cholas
Kulothunga I 1070–1120
Vikrama 1118–1135
Kulothunga II 1133–1150
Rajaraja II 1146–1173
Rajadhiraja II 1166–1178
Kulothunga III 1178–1218
Rajaraja III 1216–1256
Rajendra III 1246–1279
Related dynasties
Telugu Chodas of Andhra
Chodagangas of Kalinga
Nidugal Cholas of Karnataka
Rajahnate of Cebu
Chola society

Rajendra Chola I (971 CE – 1044 CE) often described as Rajendra the Great, also known as Gangaikonda Chola "the bringer of the Ganges" was a Chola Emperor who ruled between 1014 and 1044 CE.[4][5][6] Rajendra succeeded his father Rajaraja I in 1014 CE.[4] The extensive Chola empire under Rajendra I included most parts of present-day south India, with the river Krishna as the northern limit, Sri Lanka and the Laccadives and the Maldives.[4] He carried out a successful military expedition to the River Ganges through Orissa and Bengal and brought Ganges water to his new capital down in the Kaveri Delta, Gangaikondacholapuram.[4] Rajendra's ambitious campaign against the Srivijaya (the southern Malay peninsula and Sumatra) is dated to c. 1025 CE. A number of strategic places along the Straits of Malacca came under Chola control as a result of this campaign.[4] Rajendra was succeeded by Rajadhiraja I (1044 - 1054).[7]

The Cholas were by far the most important dynasty of South Asia at the time of Rajendra, although their activities mainly affected the South India and Southeast Asia.[8] The Chola naval campaigns in the Arabian Sea and the Strait of Malacca were essential to the control over the Indian Ocean spice trade (from the Southeast Asia or southern China to the Arabia or eastern Africa).[8]

Early life and ascension[edit]

The exact birth date of Rajendra I is unknown. It is suspected that he was born around 971 CE.[9] He was the son of Rajaraja I and queen Vanavan Madevi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār. He had a younger brother named Araiyan Raja Rajan (aka) Vikrama Chola, who was a commanding general of a Chola army. (He must have had at least three sisters, the younger Kundavai, the queen of Chalukya-Vimaladitya, and a daughter called Mahadevi.) Other major members of the royal household included queen mothers Dantisakti Vitanki alias Lokamahadevi and Kundavai, the elder sister of Rajaraja. The nakshatra of Rajendra's birth was Thiruvathirai (Ardra).[10]

Rajendra was declared heir apparent and formally associated with his father in the administration of the Chola Empire in the final years of his rule (1012–1014).[5] In 1018, Rajendra (the Parakesari) appointed his son Rajadhiraja (the Rajakesari) as heir apparent or Co-Regent to the Chola throne (Ruled Pandya dynasty from 1018 to 1044).[11]

Ruling career[edit]

Conquest Chronology
Year Conquest
1002 conquest of the Rashtrakutas in East and the campaigns against the Western Chalukyas in West
1017 Captured whole Sri Lanka by navy
1018/19 Stopped rebellions in Pandya and Chera country by a good rule
1019 Captured all of Odisha, Bihar, present day west Bengal and Bangladesh
1025 Successful invasion of Southeast Asia including present day Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia and Vietnam by a Strong Navy

Rajendra Cholan I commenced his war expeditions in the Indian mainland when he was yet a co-regent of his father, with the capture of Iddaithurai Naadu the central Karnataka, bordering Andhra Pradesh, Vanavaasi of west Karnataka, in one expedition in 1012. He thereafter directed his attention on Kollipaakkai of north Andhra Pradesh, and captured same in 1013. The above two expeditions were carried out by Rajendra Chola I on behalf of his father Rajaraja Chola I.

In 1014 he lead an expedition against the Irrataipaadi Elaraillakam the north Karnataka & south Maharashtra, and captured its capital city the Mannaikadakkam the Maleked, also on behalf of his father, which met this reverse after its initial capture by Rajaraja Cholan in 1006.

With the death of Rajaraja Cholan I in 1014 CE, and with the ascension of Rajendra Cholan I in the same year as the next emperor of the Chola empire, there was a lapse of two years in the latter continuing with his war expeditions.

In 1016 he first sent an expedition overseas to Elamandalam, Sri Lanka, and brought the entire island under his rule. This was followed by an expedition of Rajendra Cholan to east Kerala in 1017 which captured the Kudamalai Nadu.

Rajendra Cholan's forces crossed the seas again, in the year 1018, and captured the Pal Palanthivam the many islands of Maldives and Lakshadweep. This was followed by the capture of Sandimaaththivu the Kavaratti island overseas west of Kerala, also in 1018.

In 1019 Rajendra Cholans sent another expedition against the Irrataipaadi Elaraiillakam the north Karnataka & south Maharashtra - now with its new capital at Kalyani, in the northmost Karnataka which the Cholas lost again but re-captured after a battle at Musangi of east Karnataka.

Rajendra Cholan I with his capture of many regions in the Indian mainland after a lapse of two years he became more ambitious in conquering the northern and north-western regions of India.

He commenced his war expedition in this direction in the year 1021 with his capture of Sakkarakkoattam the south Chhattisgarh.

From here he split his forces in to two and sent one in the direction of Ganges river in the north and the other in the north-western direction while he stationed himself at Sakkarakkoattam until the two expeditions were complete.

Expedition of the forces of Rajendra Cholan I towards the north-west of India, was most possibly to assist his ally Paramara Bhoja of Malawa of south Madya Pradesh to fight the invasion of Mahumad of Gazni of west Afghanistan, and also relieve the kingdoms that already fell victims to his invasions, namely the Kanyakubja, Mathura, Namanaikkonam, Panchappalli, Masunidesam and Athinagar.

The confederacy that existed between the Bhoja king of Malawa and Rajendra Chola I is 'confirmed' by an inscription from Balagamve in south Maharashtra which refers to Cholas "as the greatest of kings". Another inscription from Kulenur in Karnataka confirms this confederacy was not only between Bhoja of Malawa and Rajendra Chola, but also inclusive of Gangeya of Kalachuria.

The second expedition went towards river Ganges in the north from Sakkarakkoattam and captured the regions of Odda Vishayam of Orissa, Kosala Naadu the north Chhattisgarh, Thandabuththi in north Orissa, Thakkana Laadam in south Jharkhand, Vangala desam the Bangladesh, Uttara Laadam of north Jharkhand and reached the great river Ganges.

The Chola Indian Mainland expedition ended in 1022 and details of the countries conquered by his forces in this single expedition was included in his Meikeerthi's from the year 1023.

With the return of the Chola forces of Rajendra Cholan I to the Chola capital, from their victorious expedition to Uttarapatham and Gangetic region countries in 1022, the Royal Guru of Rajendra Cholan I the Isaana Pandithar built a temple at Kulampandel in Tamil Nadu named as Gangaikonda Cholaeswarer temple.

With his return Rajendra Cholan I claimed a new title as "Gangaikondaan" and gave the title "Gangaikonda Cholan" (the Chola who captured Gangai) to his younger brother who lead the Gangetic expedition.

Rajendra Cholan I commenced the construction of a new city named the "Gangaikonda Cholapuram", with a new Siva Temple named "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarem", and a big 'temple water tank' named the "Chola Gangam" where the holy water brought in from the Ganges River was mixed.

The Essalam Copper Plates of Rajendra Cholan I specifically state that with the conquest of the Gangetic region, it was Rajendra Cholan I who constructed the new city the Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the great Gangaikonda Choleswarer temple, and the sacred Cholagangam Tank at the Udaiyar Palaiyam region of Ariyalur district.

In this great temple "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarem" he built, the presiding deity of the Karuvarai (Sanctum Sanctorium) was known as the "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarer" also known as "Peruvudaiyar" - the God Siva in the form of Lingam, the biggest Lingam among the Siva Temples both in India and Worldover, having a height of 13 ft and 20 ft in circumference.

The "Vijayamkonda Cholaeswarem" Siva temple - of Erumbur in Cuddalore district (present Kadambavanesvara temple near Erumbur) was built in commemoration of the victory of the forces of Rajendra Chola I over Sri Vijaya and many regions of Sumatra of Indonesia.

The "Kadaremkonda Cholaeswarem" Siva temple - of Kudimallur in Vellore district (present Bhumisvara temple near Kalavai) was built in commemoration of the victory of the forces of Rajendra Chola I over Kadarem and many regions of Malaysia.

His far overseas war expedition commenced in the year 1023 with a large fleet of ships with Chola warriors directed first to Sri Vijaya the Palembang of south Sumatra of Indonesia which was captured. Thereafter they captured the Malaiyur of south Sumatra adjacent to Sri Vijaya.

From there the fleet crossed the seas and captured the Mevilibangham the Bangha Island adjacent to south Sumatra and then they moved to Pannai of east Sumatra in the mainland, followed by Ilamuridesam of north Sumatra.

The forces now crossed to Malaysia and captured Vallaipandur of north-east Malaysia, followed by Kadarem of north-west and west Malaysia. From here they went further north and captured the Ilankasokam of south-east Thailand adjacent to Kadarem and followed by Mathamalingam of east Thailand, and Thalaitakkolam of south-west Thailand.

From here the fleet went on sea homeward, and on their way captured the Manakkavaarem the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

They further travelled by sea and captured the Maapapaalam the seaport city of the present south Miyanmar, and returned to the Chola country. The Chola south-east Asian expedition ended in 1024 and details of the countries conquered by his forces in this single expedition was included in his Meikeerthi's from the year 1025.

With the victory of Rajendra Cholan I over Sri Vijaya(m) of Sumatra, Indonesia in 1023, he built a Siva Temple at Erumbur in Tamil Nadu, and named it as Vijayamkonda Cholaeswarem.

With his triumph over the Kadarem, Rajendra Cholan I assumed another new title as "Kadaremkondaan", and one of his grandsons who led the Kadarem expedition was given the title "Kadaremkonda Cholan" (the Chola who captured Kadarem), and a region of the present Kudimallur in Tamil Nadu was named as the "Kadaremkonda Cholapuram". There are villages in present day Tamil Nadu still bearing names as Kadaramkondaan at Thiruvaarur and Ariyalur regions (present Gedaramkondan in Ariyalur), and as Kadaramkonda Cholapuram (present Narasingpuram). With the victories of Rajendra Cholan I over Kadaram in Malaysia in 1023, he built a Siva Temple in north Tamil Nadu and named it as Kadaremkonda Cholaeswarem.

It was with their triumphs in the wars in the Indian mainland, and near overseas, they built the former two "magnificient & gigantic temples completely out of Granite stone" as living monuments of their great valour and superior status in this region, which are included in the present day UNESCO World Heritage Series. The latter two were built in commemoration of their triumps far overseas, and as monuments of their great achievements in South-East Asia and the superior status of the Medieval Chola Empire in the World History of that period (1025 CE).

Early campaigns[edit]

Rajendra led campaigns from 1002 CE. These include the conquest of the Rashtrakutas and the campaigns against the Western Chalukyas. He conquered the Chalukyan territories of Yedatore (a large part of the Raichur district between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra), Banavasi in the north-west of Mysore and capital Manyakheta. Rajendra erected a Siva temple at Bhatkal. He also conquered Kollipakkai, located to the north of Hyderabad in present-day Telangana. An excerpt from an inscription in Tamil from Kolar states:

In the 8th year of the reign of Kopparakesarivanmar sri Rajendra Sola Deva, who, while the goddess of Fortune, having become constant, increased, and while the goddess of the great Earth, the goddess of victory in battle and the matchless goddess of Fame, having become his great queens, rejoiced-that in his extended lifetime, conquered with his great war-like army Idaiturai-nadu, Vanavasi shut in by a fence of continuous forests; Kollipakkai, whose walls were surrounded by sulli trees; Mannaikkadakkam whose fortification was unapproachable.[12]

Conquest of Sri Lanka[edit]

Main article: Chola occupation of Sri Lanka (993-1077)

Rajaraja I conquered the northern half of Sri Lanka during his reign. Rajendra invaded Ceylon in 1017 CE and annexed part of the island.[13] As a result of the campaign, Rajendra captured the regal jewels of the Pandyas, which Parantaka I tried to capture and the crown of the Sinhala king. The Sinhala king Mahinda V was taken prisoner and transported to the Chola country.

Pandyas and Cheras[edit]

In 1018/19 CE, Rajendra marched into the Pandya and Chera Perumal kingdoms and conquered the two countries.[14] Rajendra appointed one of his sons as viceroy with the title Jatavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya with Madurai as the headquarters (in-charge both Pandya and Chera/Kerala countries).

Chalukyan conflict[edit]

In 1015 CE, Jayasimha II became the king of Western Chalukyas. He tried to recover the losses suffered by his predecessor Satyashraya, who fled his capital and was later restored to the throne by Raja Raja I as a tribute paying subordinate. Initially, Jayasimha II was successful as Rajendra was busy with his campaigns in Sri Lanka.[15] In 1021 CE, after the demise of the Eastern Chalukyan king Vimaladitya of Vengi, Jayasimha supported the claim of Vijayaditya VII to the throne against the claims of Rajaraja Narendra. Rajaraja Narendra was the son of Vimaladitya and Chola princess Kundavai.[15] Rajendra helped his nephew Rajaraja defeat Vijayaditya.[16] His armies defeated Vijayadiya in Vengi and Jayasimha in the battle of Maski.[15]

Gangaikonda Cholapuram was built by Rajendra Chola to celebrate his success in the Ganges Expedition

Expedition to the Ganges[edit]

Main article: Chola expedition to North India

In 1019 CE, Rajendra's forces marched through Kalinga towards the river Ganga. In Kalinga the Chola forces defeated Indraratha the ruler of the Somavamsi Dynasty.[17] Rajendra Chola took help of the Paramaras and the Kalachuris with whom Indraratha had a bitter enmity and Rajendra Chola took advantage of this situation. Indraratha was defeated against the combined armies and probably was killed. Within years of this event, Yayati II, the next Somavamshi ruler restored order in the Odra region and was successful in coming out of the influence of Rajendra Chola I.

The Chola army eventually reached the Pala kingdom of Bengal where they defeated Mahipala. The Chola army also defeated the last ruler of the Kamboja Pala dynasty Dharmapala of Dandabhukti.[18][19] The Chola army went on to raid East Bengal and defeated Govindachandra of the Chandra dynasty and invaded Bastar region.[20][21] He constructed a new capital at Gangaikondacholapuram and built the Brihadeeswarar Temple similar to the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur.

Rajendra Chola's Territories c. 1030 CE

South East Asian expedition[edit]

Main articles: Chola invasion of Srivijaya and South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I

Srivijaya was a kingdom centered on Palembang in Sumatra, ruled by the Sailendra dynasty. During the reign of Mara Vijayatungavarman, Srivijaya had cordial relations with the Chola Empire during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I; Mara Vijayatungavarman built a Chudamani Vihara at Nagapattinam. Mara was succeeded by Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman.

Khmer Emperor Suryavarman I made war on the kingdom of Tambralinga (in the Malay Peninsula). Suryavarman I requested aid from Rajendra.[22][23] After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, Tambralinga requested aid from Srivijaya, which was granted by Sangrama.[22][24] This eventually led to the Chola expedition against the Srivijiya Empire. This alliance somewhat also had a religious nuance, since both the Chola Empire and the Khmer Empire were Hindu Shivaist, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya were Mahayana Buddhist.[citation needed]

In 1025 CE, Rajendra led Chola forces across the Indian Ocean and invaded Srivijaya, attacking several places in Malaysia and Indonesia.[25] The Chola sacked Kadaram (the capital) and Pannai in Sumatra and Malaiyur in the Malay Peninsula. Rajendra also invaded Tambralinga and the Langkasuka Kingdom in modern Malaysia and south Thailand.[26][27][28] The Chola forces captured the last ruler of the Sailendra Dynasty Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman.[29] The Chola invasion was the end of Srivijaya.[30][31] Srivijaya's maritime power declined under Chola attack.[32] After this the Chola Empire conquered large portions of Srivijaya, including its ports of Ligor, Kedah, and Tumasik (now Singapore).[32][33] The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole, and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia.[34][35][36][37] For the next century, Tamil trading companies from southern India dominated Southeast Asia.[30][31] The expedition of Rajendra Chola I is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya, and Malay princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, such as Raja Chulan of Perak.[38][39][40][41][42] One record of Rajendra Chola describes him as the King of Lamuri in north Sumatra.[43] The Chola invasion led to the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with the return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India in 1025.[44]

Death[edit]

Rajendra I died in 1044 AD at the village of Brahmadesam, present-day Tiruvannamalai District in Tamil Nadu. This information is recorded in an inscription by his son, Rajadhiraja I which states that Rajendra's queen Viramahadevi committed sati upon her husband's death and her remains were interred in the same tomb at Brahmadesam. It adds that the queen's brother, Madhuranthaka Parakesari Velan,[45] who was a general in Rajendra's army, constructed a watershed at the same place in memory of his sister.[3][46]

Personal life and family[edit]

The Siddanta Saravali of Trilochana Sivacharya states that Rajendra was a poet and he composed hymns in praise of god Shiva. A commentary on the same work states that Rajendra brought a number of Saivas from the banks of the river Ganges and settled them in Kanchi and the Chola country.[47]

Titles[edit]

  • After his successful campaign to Ganges river in north India he got the title Gangaikonda Chola (The Chola who took the Ganges river). And after his successful Southeast Asian campaign he got the title "Kadaram Kondan" (He who took Kedah in Malaysia).[48]
  • He inherited the title Mummudi Cholan (Chola with three crowns) from his father with Mummudi, a title used by Tamil kings who ruled the three kingdoms of Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras.[49] To commemorate his conquests, Rajendra assumed other titles such as Mudigonda Cholan and Irattapadikonda Cholan.
  • Rajendra I bore the title Chalukya-Chudamani, that is Crest Jewel of the Chalukyas.[50]

Family[edit]

Rajendra I had many queens including Tribhuvana or Vanavan Mahadevi, Mukkokilan, Panchavan Mahadevi and Viramahadevi, last of whom committed sati upon her husband's death (1044 AD).[6] He had 7 sons, namely Rajarajan, Manukula Kesari, Rajadhiraja, Sanga varman, Rajendra II, Rajamahendran and Virarajendra. Rajarajan was the eldest of the seven but unfortunately he died at his pre-teen age and Manukula Kesari was died in 1014/15 CE during the war with western chalukyas. Arulmoli Nangaiyar Piranar and Ammangadevi (queen of Eastern Chalukya Rajaraja I and the mother of Kulottunga I) are the two known daughters of king Rajendra.[6]

Work and legacy[edit]

See also: List of Chola Temples in Bangalore
Rajendra Chola in Battle, Kolaramma Temple, Kolar[51]
Stone sculpture with Tamil Inscription, Chokkanathaswamy temple, Bengaluru built in 10th century AD
Tamil Inscription at Chokkanathaswamy temple

Rajendra Chola built a vast artificial lake, sixteen miles long and three miles wide which was one of the largest man-made lakes in India.[52] The fortified capital of Rajendra Chola was of impressive grandeur and Ottakoothar states, On seeing Gangapuri, all fourteen worlds encircled by the billowing ocean are overwhelmed with joy.[52][53] The extent of the empire was the widest in India and the military and naval prestige was at its highest.[54] The successful invasions of Rajendra Chola were applauded by several medieval Tamil poets like Jayamkondan in his text Kalingattupparani and Ottakkoothar in his text Ula.[48] He founded a new capital city called Gangaikonda Cholapuram and built a Shiva temple similar to the Thanjavur Brihadisvara temple built by his father Rajaraja Chola. He expanded the Pathirakali Amman Temple and Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee.[52]

The Malay-language Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain was written about Alexander the Great as Dhul-Qarnayn and from it the ancestry of several southeast Asian royal families is traced to Iskandar Zulkarnain,[55] through Rajendra Chola (Raja Suran, Raja Chola) in the Malay Annals, such as the Sumatran Minangkabau royalty.[56][57]

Inscriptions[edit]

  • An inscription of the king from the Adhipuriswara temple in Chengalpattu district gives his natal star as Tiruvadarai. Donations were made to the temple to celebrate the king's birthday in the month of Maargali.[58]
  • Another inscription from the Umamahesvara temple in Konerirajapuram, Thanjavur district refers to the donations by Alvar Parantakan Kundavai-Pirattiyar during the third year of the king's reign.[59]

Officials and feudatories[edit]

Rajendra (the Parakesari) appointed his son Rajadhiraja (the Rajakesari) as heir apparent to the Chola throne in 1018 AD.[11] Large military expeditions, like the Pandya and Chalukya wars, were carried out by Rajadhiraja.[60] The prominent feudatories or officials of the time were,

Popular culture[edit]

  • India's merchant navy training ship TS Rajendra was named in his honour.[61]
  • The state government of Maharashtra proposed to dedicate Rajendra Chola's portrait to Mazgaon Docks[62]

Literature[edit]

  • Vengayin Maindhan by Akilan covers the life and achievements of Rajendra Chola
  • Gangapuri Kavalan by Vembu Vikiraman in which Rajendra Chola is the protagonist
  • Mannan Magal by Sandilyan set in the period of Rajendra Chola
  • Gangai Konda Cholan by Balakumaran
  • Ulagam Vendra Cholan by Bharathika which covers the war history and lifetime achievements

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 46–49. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4.
  2. ^ Raj Kumar (2008). Encyclopaedia of Untouchables Ancient, Medieval and Modern. Kalpaz Publications. p. 115.
  3. ^ a b c Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri. Sri Brihadisvara: The Great Temple of Thānjavūr. Nile Books, 1998. p. 19.
  4. ^ a b c d e Thapar, Romila (2003) [2002]. The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. New Delhi: Penguin Books. pp. 364–365. ISBN 978-0-14-302989-2.
  5. ^ a b K. A. Nilakanta Sastri 1955, pp. 194–195.
  6. ^ a b c K. A. Nilakanta Sastri 1955, pp. 228.
  7. ^ Karashima, Noboru (2014). A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 370. ISBN 978-0-19-809977-2.
  8. ^ a b Thapar, Romila. "The Colas". Encyclopedia Britannica.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  9. ^ Kramrisch, Stella; Boner, Alice; Sarma, Sadasiva Rath; Das, Rajendra Prasad (1975). "New Light on the Sun Temple of Konarka". Artibus Asiae. 37 (4): 306. doi:10.2307/3250236. ISSN 0004-3648.
  10. ^ K. A. Nilakanta Sastri 1955, pp. 186–187.
  11. ^ a b K. A. Nilakanta Sastri 1955, pp. 195–196.
  12. ^ Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 32
  13. ^ Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps Twenty-Sixth Edition 2010, South India page 59
  14. ^ See Sastri, K. A. N., A History of South India, p165
  15. ^ a b c See Sastri, K. A. N., A History of South India, p166
  16. ^ Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, page 70
  17. ^ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (2000) [1935]. The Cōlas. Madras: University of Madras. p.208
  18. ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.281
  19. ^ West Bengal District Gazetteers: Nadīa p.63
  20. ^ The Cambridge Shorter History of India p.145
  21. ^ Dimensions of Human Cultures in Central India by Professor S.K. Tiwari p.161
  22. ^ a b Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers
  23. ^ Munoz, Paul Michel. Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula p. 158-159
  24. ^ *Majumdar, R. C. (1961). "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Chola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338–342. Artibus Asiae Publishers.
  25. ^ Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans. Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
  26. ^ The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World by Lincoln Paine p.866
  27. ^ Andaya, Leonard Y. Leaves of the Same Tree: Trade and Ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka p.35
  28. ^ Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 41
  29. ^ Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay. Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia p. 230
  30. ^ a b Abshire, Jean. The History of Singapore p. 17
  31. ^ a b Murfett, Malcolm H.; Miksic, John; Farell, Brian; Chiang, Ming Shun. Between Two Oceans: A Military History of Singapore from 1275 to 1971 p. 16
  32. ^ a b Sar Desai, D. R. Southeast Asia: Past and Present p.43
  33. ^ Munoz, p. 161
  34. ^ Sen, Tansen. Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400 p. 159
  35. ^ Findlay, Ronald; O'Rourke, Kevin H. Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium p. 69
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  39. ^ Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay. Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia p. 71
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  44. ^ Atisa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dipamkara Srijnana by Alaka Chattopadhyaya p.91
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Bibliography[edit]

  • K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (1955). The Colas (2nd revised ed.). University of Madras.

Further reading[edit]

Preceded by Chola dynasty
1012–1044 CE 		Succeeded by
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