Faith

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This article is about religious belief. For trust in people or other things, see Trust (emotion). For other uses of faith, see Faith (disambiguation).
Faith (Armani), by Mino da Fiesole.

Faith, derived from Latin fides and Old French feid,[1] is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept.[1][2] In the context of religion, one can define faith as "belief in God or in the doctrines or teachings of religion".[3] Religious people often think of faith as confidence based on a perceived degree of warrant,[4][5] while others who are more skeptical of religion tend to think of faith as simply belief without evidence.[6]

Etymology[edit]

The English word faith is thought to date from 1200–1250, from the Middle English feith, via Anglo-French fed, Old French feid, feit from Latin fidem, accusative of fidēs (trust), akin to fīdere (to trust).[7]

Stages of faith development[edit]

Main article: James W. Fowler § Stages of Faith

James W. Fowler (1940–2015) proposes a series of stages of faith-development (or spiritual development) across the human life-span. His stages relate closely to the work of Piaget, Erikson, and Kohlberg regarding aspects of psychological development in children and adults. Fowler defines faith as an activity of trusting, committing, and relating to the world based on a set of assumptions of how one is related to others and the world.[8]

Stages of faith[edit]

  1. Intuitive-Projective: a stage of confusion and of high impressionability through stories and rituals (pre-school period).
  2. Mythic-Literal: a stage where provided information is accepted in order to conform with social norms (school-going period).
  3. Synthetic-Conventional: in this stage the faith acquired is concreted in the belief system with the forgoing of personification and replacement with authority in individuals or groups that represent one's beliefs (early-late adolescence).
  4. Individuative-Reflective: in this stage the individual critically analyzes adopted and accepted faith with existing systems of faith. Disillusion or strengthening of faith happens in this stage. Based on needs, experiences and paradoxes (early adulthood).
  5. Conjunctive faith: in this stage people realize the limits of logic and, facing the paradoxes or transcendence of life, accept the "mystery of life" and often return to the sacred stories and symbols of the pre-acquired or re-adopted faith system. This stage is called negotiated settling in life (mid-life).
  6. Universalizing faith: this is the "enlightenment" stage where the individual comes out of all the existing systems of faith and lives life with universal principles of compassion and love and in service to others for upliftment, without worries and doubt (middle-late adulthood (45–65 years old and plus).[9][full citation needed]

No hard-and-fast rule requires individuals pursuing faith to go through all six stages. There is a high probability for individuals to be content and fixed in a particular stage for a lifetime; stages from 2–5 are such stages. Stage 6 is the summit of faith development. This state is often[quantify] considered as "not fully" attainable.[10]

Religious views[edit]

Baháʼí Faith[edit]

In the Baháʼí Faith, faith is meant, first, conscious knowledge, and second, the practice of good deeds,[11] ultimately the acceptance of the divine authority of the Manifestations of God.[12] In the religion's view, faith and knowledge are both required for spiritual growth.[12] Faith involves more than outward obedience to this authority, but also must be based on a deep personal understanding of religious teachings.[12]

Buddhism[edit]

Main article: Faith in Buddhism

Faith in Buddhism (Pali: saddhā, Sanskrit: śraddhā) refers to a serene commitment in the practice of the Buddha's teaching and trust in enlightened or highly developed beings, such as Buddhas or bodhisattvas (those aiming to become a Buddha).[13][14] Buddhists usually recognize multiple objects of faith, but many are especially devoted to one particular object of faith, such as one particular Buddha.[13][15][16]

In early Buddhism, faith was focused on the Triple Gem, that is, Gautama Buddha, his teaching (the Dhamma), and the community of spiritually developed followers, or the monastic community seeking enlightenment (the Sangha). Although offerings to the monastic community were valued highest, early Buddhism did not morally condemn peaceful offerings to deities.[17] A faithful devotee was called upāsaka or upāsika, for which no formal declaration was required.[18] In early Buddhism, personal verification was valued highest in attaining the truth, and sacred scriptures, reason or faith in a teacher were considered less valuable sources of authority.[19] As important as faith was, it was a mere initial step to the path to wisdom and enlightenment, and was obsolete or redefined at the final stage of that path.[20][21]

While faith in Buddhism does not imply "blind faith", Buddhist practice nevertheless requires a degree of trust, primarily in the spiritual attainment of Gautama Buddha. Faith in Buddhism centers on the understanding that the Buddha is an Awakened being, on his superior role as teacher, in the truth of his Dharma (spiritual teachings), and in his Sangha (community of spiritually developed followers). Faith in Buddhism can be summarised as faith in the Three Jewels: the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. It is intended to lead to the goal of enlightenment, or bodhi, and Nirvana. Volitionally, faith implies a resolute and courageous act of will. It combines the steadfast resolution that one will do a thing with the self-confidence that one can do it.[22]

In the later stratum of Buddhist history, especially Mahāyāna Buddhism, faith was given a much more important role.[23][24] The concept of the Buddha Nature was developed, as devotion to Buddhas and bodhisattvas residing in Pure Lands became commonplace.[25][26] With the arising of the cult of the Lotus Sūtra, faith gained a central role in Buddhist practice,[27] which was further amplified with the development of devotion to the Amitabha Buddha in Pure Land Buddhism.[28][29] In the Japanese form of Pure Land Buddhism, under the teachers Hōnen and Shinran, only entrusting faith toward the Amitabha Buddha was believed to be a fruitful form of practice, as the practice of celibacy, morality and other Buddhist disciplines were dismissed as no longer effective in this day and age, or contradicting the virtue of faith.[30][31][32] Faith was defined as a state similar to enlightenment, with a sense of self-negation and humility.[33][34]

Thus, the role of faith increased throughout Buddhist history. However, from the nineteenth century onward, Buddhist modernism in countries like Sri Lanka and Japan, and also in the West, has downplayed and criticized the role of faith in Buddhism. Faith in Buddhism still has a role in modern Asia or the West, but is understood and defined differently from traditional interpretations.[35][36][37] Within the Dalit Buddhist Movement communities, taking refuge is defined not only as a religious, but also a political choice.[38]

Christianity[edit]

Triumph of Faith over Idolatry by Jean-Baptiste Théodon (1646–1713)
Main article: Faith in Christianity

The word translated as "faith" in English-language editions of the New Testament, the Greek word πίστις (pístis), can also be translated as "belief", "faithfulness", or "trust".[39] Christianity encompasses various views regarding the nature of faith. Some see faith as being persuaded or convinced that something is true.[40] In this view, a person believes something when they are presented with adequate evidence that it is true. The 13th-century theologian Saint Thomas Aquinas did not hold that faith is mere opinion: on the contrary, he held that it represents a mean (understood in the Platonic sense) between excessive reliance on science (i.e. demonstration) and excessive reliance on opinion.[41]

Numerous commentators discuss the results of faith. Some believe that true faith results in good works, while others believe that while faith in Jesus brings eternal life, it does not necessarily result in good works.[42]

Regardless of the approach taken to faith, all Christians agree that the Christian faith (in the sense of Christian practice) is aligned with the ideals and the example of the life of Jesus. The Christian contemplates the mystery of God and his grace, and seeks to know and become obedient to God. To a Christian, the faith is not static[43] but causes one to learn more of God and to grow in faith; Christian faith has its origin in God.[44]

The definition of faith given by the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews at Hebrews 11:1 carries particular weight with Christians who respect the Bible. There the author writes:

"Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen." — King James Version

"Now faith is the assurance that what we hope for will come about and the certainty that what we cannot see exists." — International Standard Version

In Christianity, faith causes change as it seeks a greater understanding of God. Faith is not only fideism or simple obedience to a set of rules or statements.[45] Before Christians have faith, they must understand in whom and in what they have faith. Without understanding, there cannot be true faith, and that understanding is built on the foundation of the community of believers, the scriptures and traditions and on the personal experiences of the believer.[46] In English translations of the New Testament, the word "faith" generally corresponds to the Greek noun πίστις (pistis) or to the Greek verb πιστεύω (pisteuo), meaning "to trust, to have confidence, faithfulness, to be reliable, to assure".[47]

Strength of faith[edit]

Christians may recognise different degrees of faith when they encourage each other to and themselves strive to develop, grow, and/or deepen their faith.[48] This may imply that one can measure faith. Willingness to undergo martyrdom indicates a proxy for depth of faith, but does not provide an everyday measurement for the average contemporary Christian. Within the Calvinist tradition the degree of prosperity[49] may serve as an analog of level of faith.[50] Other Christian strands may rely on personal self-evaluation to measure the intensity of an individual's faith, with associated difficulties in calibrating to any scale. Solemn affirmations of a creed (a statement of faith) provide broad measurements of details. Various tribunals of the Inquisition, however, concerned themselves with precisely evaluating the orthodoxy of the faith of those it examined – in order to acquit or to punish in varying degrees.[51]

The classification of different degrees of faith allows that faith and its expression may wax and wane in fervor - during the lifetime of a faithful individual and/or over the various historical centuries of a society with an embedded religious system. Thus one can speak of an "Age of Faith"[52][53] or of the "decay" of a society's religiosity into corruption,[54] secularism,[55] or atheism,[56] - interpretable as the ultimate loss of faith.[57]

Christian apologetic views[edit]

In contrast to Richard Dawkins' view of faith as "blind trust, in the absence of evidence, even in the teeth of evidence",[58] Alister McGrath quotes the Oxford Anglican theologian W. H. Griffith Thomas (1861–1924), who states that faith is "not blind, but intelligent" and that it "commences with the conviction of the mind based on adequate evidence...", which McGrath sees as "a good and reliable definition, synthesizing the core elements of the characteristic Christian understanding of faith".[59]

American biblical scholar Archibald Thomas Robertson (1863-1934) stated that the Greek word pistis used for "faith" in the New Testament (over two hundred forty times), and rendered "assurance" in Acts 17:31 (KJV), is "an old verb meaning "to furnish", used regularly by Demosthenes for bringing forward evidence."[60] Tom Price (Oxford Centre for Christian Apologetics) affirms that when the New Testament talks about faith positively it only uses words derived from the Greek root [pistis] which means "to be persuaded".[61]

British Christian apologist John Lennox argues that "faith conceived as belief that lacks warrant is very different from faith conceived as belief that has warrant". He states that "the use of the adjective 'blind' to describe 'faith' indicates that faith is not necessarily, or always, or indeed normally, blind". "The validity, or warrant, of faith or belief depends on the strength of the evidence on which the belief is based." "We all know how to distinguish between blind faith and evidence-based faith. We are well aware that faith is only justified if there is evidence to back it up." "Evidence-based faith is the normal concept on which we base our everyday lives."[62]

Peter S Williams[63] holds that "the classic Christian tradition has always valued rationality, and does not hold that faith involves the complete abandonment of reason while believing in the teeth of evidence".[page needed] Quoting Moreland, faith is defined as "a trust in and commitment to what we have reason to believe is true".[citation needed]

Regarding doubting Thomas in John 20:24–31, Williams points out that "Thomas wasn't asked to believe without evidence". He was asked to believe on the basis of the other disciples' testimony. Thomas initially lacked the first-hand experience of the evidence that had convinced them... Moreover, the reason John gives for recounting these events is that what he saw is evidence... Jesus did many other miraculous signs in the presence of his disciples...But these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the son of God, and that believing ye might have life in his name. John 20:30,31.[64]

Concerning doubting Thomas, Michael R. Allen wrote: "Thomas's definition of faith implies adherence to conceptual propositions for the sake of personal knowledge, knowledge of and about a person qua person".[65]

Kenneth Boa and Robert M. Bowman Jr. describe a classic understanding of faith that is referred to[by whom?] as evidentialism, and which is part of a larger epistemological tradition called classical foundationalism, which is accompanied by deontologism, which holds that humans have an obligation to regulate their beliefs in accordance with evidentialist structures.

They show how this can go too far,[66] and Alvin Plantinga deals with it. While Plantinga upholds that faith may be the result of evidence testifying to the reliability of the source (of the truth claims), yet he sees having faith as being the result of hearing the truth of the gospel with the internal persuasion by the Holy Spirit moving and enabling him to believe. "Christian belief is produced in the believer by the internal instigation of the Holy Spirit, endorsing the teachings of Scripture, which is itself divinely inspired by the Holy Spirit. The result of the work of the Holy Spirit is faith."[67]

Catholicism[edit]

The four-part Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) gives Part One to "The Profession of Faith". This section describes the content of faith. It elaborates and expands particularly upon the Apostles' Creed. CCC 144 initiates a section on the "Obedience of Faith".

In the theology of Pope John Paul II, faith is understood in personal terms as a trusting commitment of person to person and thus involves Christian commitment to the divine person of Jesus Christ.[68]

Methodism[edit]

In Methodism, faith plays an important role in justification, which occurs during the New Birth.[69] The Emmanuel Association, a Methodist denomination in the conservative holiness movement, teaches:[70]

Living faith is the gift of God (Ephesians 2:8; Romans 4:16) imparted to the obedient heart through the Word of God (Romans 10:17), and the ministry of the Holy Ghost (Ephesians 2:18). This faith becomes effective as it is exercised by man with the aid of the Spirit, which aid is always assured when the heart has met the divine condition (Hebrews 5:9). Living faith is to be distinguished from intellectual confidence which may be in the possession of any unawakened soul (Romans 10:1–4).―Principles of Faith, Emmanuel Association of Churches[70]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[edit]

The Articles of Faith of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) states that "faith in the Lord Jesus Christ" is the first principle of the gospel.

Some alternative, yet impactful, ideas regarding the nature of faith were presented by church founder Joseph Smith[71] in a collection of sermons, which are now published as the Lectures on Faith.[72]

  1. Lecture 1 explains what faith is;
  2. Lecture 2 describes how mankind comes to know about God;
  3. Lectures 3 and 4 make clear the necessary and unchanging attributes of God;
  4. Lecture 5 deals with the nature of God the Father, his Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost;
  5. Lecture 6 proclaims that the willingness to sacrifice all earthly things is prerequisite to gaining faith unto salvation;
  6. Lecture 7 treats the fruits of faith—perspective, power, and eventually perfection.[73][date missing]

Hinduism[edit]

Main articles: Bhakti and Faith in Hinduism

Bhakti (Sanskrit: भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".[74] It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to devotion and love for a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.[75][76] In ancient texts such as the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the term simply means participation, devotion and love for any endeavor, while in the Bhagavad Gita, it connotes one of the possible paths of spirituality and towards moksha, as in bhakti marga.[77]

Ahimsa, also referred to as nonviolence, is the fundamental tenet of Hinduism which advocates harmonious and peaceful co-existence and evolutionary growth in grace and wisdom for all humankind unconditionally.

In Hinduism, most of the Vedic prayers begins with the chants of Om. Om is the Sanskrit symbol that amazingly resonates the peacefulness ensconced within one's higher self. Om is considered to have a profound effect on the body and mind of the one who chants and also creates a calmness, serenity, healing, strength of its own to prevail within and also in the surrounding environment.

Islam[edit]

Main article: Iman (concept)

In Islam, a believer's faith in the metaphysical aspects of Islam is called Iman (Arabic: الإيمان), which is complete submission to the will of God, not unquestionable or blind belief.[78][79] A man must build his faith on well-grounded convictions beyond any reasonable doubt and above uncertainty.[80] According to the Quran, Iman must be accompanied by righteous deeds and the two together are necessary for entry into Paradise.[81] In the Hadith of Gabriel, Iman in addition to Islam and Ihsan form the three dimensions of the Islamic religion.

Muhammad referred to the six axioms of faith in the Hadith of Gabriel: "Iman is that you believe in God and His Angels and His Books and His Messengers and the Hereafter and the good and evil fate [ordained by your God]."[82] The first five are mentioned together in the Qur'an[83] The Quran states that faith can grow with remembrance of God.[84] The Qur'an also states that nothing in this world should be dearer to a true believer than faith.[85]

Judaism[edit]

Main article: Jewish principles of faith

Judaism recognizes the positive value of Emunah[86] (generally translated as faith, trust in God) and the negative status of the Apikorus (heretic), but faith is not as stressed or as central as it is in other religions, especially compared with Christianity and Islam.[87] It could be a necessary means for being a practicing religious Jew, but the emphasis is placed on true knowledge, true prophecy and practice rather than on faith itself. Very rarely does it relate to any teaching that must be believed.[88] Judaism does not require one to explicitly identify God (a key tenet of Christian faith, which is called Avodah Zarah in Judaism, a minor form of idol worship, a big sin and strictly forbidden to Jews). Rather, in Judaism, one is to honour a (personal) idea of God, supported by the many principles quoted in the Talmud to define Judaism, mostly by what it is not. Thus there is no established formulation of Jewish principles of faith which are mandatory for all (observant) Jews.

In the Jewish scriptures, trust in God – Emunah – refers to how God acts toward his people and how they are to respond to him; it is rooted in the everlasting covenant established in the Torah, notably[88] Deuteronomy 7:9:

Know therefore that the LORD thy God, He is God; the faithful God, who keepeth covenant and mercy with them that love Him and keep His commandments to a thousand generations;[89]

— Tanakh, [90]

The specific tenets that compose required belief and their application to the times have been disputed throughout Jewish history. Today many, but not all, Orthodox Jews have accepted Maimonides' Thirteen Principles of Belief.[91][92]

A traditional example of Emunah as seen in the Jewish annals is found in the person of Abraham. On a number of occasions, Abraham both accepts statements from God that seem impossible and offers obedient actions in response to direction from God to do things that seem implausible.[93]

"The Talmud describes how a thief also believes in G‑d: On the brink of his forced entry, as he is about to risk his life—and the life of his victim—he cries out with all sincerity, 'G‑d help me!' The thief has faith that there is a G‑d who hears his cries, yet it escapes him that this G‑d may be able to provide for him without requiring that he abrogate G‑d’s will by stealing from others. For emunah to affect him in this way he needs study and contemplation."[86]

Sikhism[edit]

Main articles: Sikhism and Five Ks

Faith itself is not a religious concept in Sikhism. However, the five Sikh symbols, known as Kakaars or Five Ks (in Punjabi known as pañj kakkē or pañj kakār), are sometimes referred to as the Five articles of Faith. The articles include kēs (uncut hair), kaṅghā (small wooden comb), kaṛā (circular steel or iron bracelet), kirpān (sword/dagger), and kacchera (special undergarment). Baptised Sikhs are bound to wear those five articles of faith, at all times, to save them from bad company and keep them close to God.[94]

Epistemological validity[edit]

"justification of faith" redirects here. For the concept of justification by faith, see sola fide.

There is a wide spectrum of opinion with respect to the epistemological validity of faith[95] - that is, whether it is a reliable way to acquire true beliefs.

Fideism[edit]

Main article: Fideism

Fideism is an epistemological theory which maintains that faith is independent of reason, or that reason and faith are hostile to each other and faith is superior at arriving at particular truths (see natural theology). Fideism is not a synonym for religious belief, but describes a particular philosophical proposition in regard to the relationship between faith's appropriate jurisdiction at arriving at truths, contrasted against reason. It states that faith is needed to determine some philosophical and religious truths, and it questions the ability of reason to arrive at all truth. The word and concept had its origin in the mid- to late-19th century by way of Catholic thought, in a movement called Traditionalism. The Roman Catholic Magisterium has, however, repeatedly condemned fideism.[96]

Support[edit]

Religious epistemologists have formulated and defended reasons for the rationality of accepting belief in God without the support of an argument.[97] Some religious epistemologists hold that belief in God is more analogous to belief in a person than belief in a scientific hypothesis. Human relations demand trust and commitment. If belief in God is more like belief in other persons, then the trust that is appropriate to persons will be appropriate to God. American psychologist and philosopher William James offers a similar argument in his lecture The Will to Believe.[97][98] Foundationalism is a view about the structure of justification or knowledge.[99] Foundationalism holds that all knowledge and justified belief are ultimately based upon what are called properly basic beliefs. This position is intended to resolve the infinite regress problem in epistemology. According to foundationalism, a belief is epistemically justified only if it is justified by properly basic beliefs. One of the significant developments in foundationalism is the rise of reformed epistemology.[99]

Reformed epistemology is a view about the epistemology of religious belief, which holds that belief in God can be properly basic. Analytic philosophers Alvin Plantinga and Nicholas Wolterstorff develop this view.[100] Plantinga holds that an individual may rationally believe in God even though the individual does not possess sufficient evidence to convince an agnostic. One difference between reformed epistemology and fideism is that the former requires defence against known objections, whereas the latter might dismiss such objections as irrelevant.[101] Plantinga has developed reformed epistemology in Warranted Christian Belief as a form of externalism that holds that the justification conferring factors for a belief may include external factors.[102] Some theistic philosophers have defended theism by granting evidentialism but supporting theism through deductive arguments whose premises are considered justifiable. Some of these arguments are probabilistic, either in the sense of having weight but being inconclusive, or in the sense of having a mathematical probability assigned to them.[97] Notable in this regard are the cumulative arguments presented by British philosopher Basil Mitchell and analytic philosopher Richard Swinburne, whose arguments are based on Bayesian probability.[103][104] In a notable exposition of his arguments, Swinburne appeals to an inference for the best explanation.[105][106]

Professor of Mathematics and philosopher of science at University of Oxford John Lennox has stated, "Faith is not a leap in the dark; it’s the exact opposite. It’s a commitment based on evidence… It is irrational to reduce all faith to blind faith and then subject it to ridicule. That provides a very anti-intellectual and convenient way of avoiding intelligent discussion.” He criticises Richard Dawkins as a famous proponent of asserting that faith equates to holding a belief without evidence, thus that it is possible to hold belief without evidence, for failing to provide evidence for this assertion.[107][clarification needed]

Criticism[edit]

Bertrand Russell wrote:[6]

Christians hold that their faith does good, but other faiths do harm. At any rate, they hold this about the communist faith. What I wish to maintain is that all faiths do harm. We may define “faith” as a firm belief in something for which there is no evidence. Where there is evidence, no one speaks of “faith.” We do not speak of faith that two and two are four or that the earth is round. We only speak of faith when we wish to substitute emotion for evidence. The substitution of emotion for evidence is apt to lead to strife, since different groups substitute different emotions. Christians have faith in the Resurrection; communists have faith in Marx’s Theory of Value. Neither faith can be defended rationally, and each therefore is defended by propaganda and, if necessary, by war.

— Will Religious Faith Cure Our Troubles?

Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins criticizes all faith by generalizing from specific faith in propositions that conflict directly with scientific evidence.[108] He describes faith as belief without evidence; a process of active non-thinking. He states that it is a practice that only degrades our understanding of the natural world by allowing anyone to make a claim about nature that is based solely on their personal thoughts, and possibly distorted perceptions, that does not require testing against nature, has no ability to make reliable and consistent predictions, and is not subject to peer review.[109]

Philosophy professor Peter Boghossian argues that reason and evidence are the only way to determine which "claims about the world are likely true". Different religious traditions make different religious claims, and Boghossian asserts that faith alone cannot resolve conflicts between these without evidence. He gives as an example of the belief held by that Muslims that Muhammad (who died in the year 632) was the last prophet, and the contradictory belief held by Mormons that Joseph Smith (born in 1805) was a prophet. Boghossian asserts that faith has no "built-in corrective mechanism". For factual claims, he gives the example of the belief that the Earth is 4,000 years old. With only faith and no reason or evidence, he argues, there is no way to correct this claim if it is inaccurate. Boghossian advocates thinking of faith either as "belief without evidence" or "pretending to know things you don't know".[110]

Friedrich Nietzsche expressed his criticism of the Christian idea of faith in passage 51 of The Antichrist:[111]

The fact that faith, under certain circumstances, may work for blessedness, but that this blessedness produced by an idée fixe by no means makes the idea itself true, and the fact that faith actually moves no mountains, but instead raises them up where there were none before: all this is made sufficiently clear by a walk through a lunatic asylum. Not, of course, to a priest: for his instincts prompt him to the lie that sickness is not sickness and lunatic asylums not lunatic asylums. Christianity finds sickness necessary, just as the Greek spirit had need of a superabundance of health—the actual ulterior purpose of the whole system of salvation of the church is to make people ill. And the church itself—doesn’t it set up a Catholic lunatic asylum as the ultimate ideal?—The whole earth as a madhouse?—The sort of religious man that the church wants is a typical décadent; the moment at which a religious crisis dominates a people is always marked by epidemics of nervous disorder; the “inner world” of the religious man is so much like the “inner world” of the overstrung and exhausted that it is difficult to distinguish between them; the “highest” states of mind, held up before mankind by Christianity as of supreme worth, are actually epileptoid in form—the church has granted the name of holy only to lunatics or to gigantic frauds in majorem dei honorem....

See also[edit]

Shinto faith.

References[edit]

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  25. ^ Bielefeldt, Carl (2004). "Japan" (PDF). In Buswell, Robert E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. New York [u.a.]: Macmillan Reference USA, Thomson Gale. pp. 389–90. ISBN 0-02-865720-9.
  26. ^ Reynolds, Frank E.; Hallisey, Charles (1987). "Buddha" (PDF). In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of religion. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Thomson Gale. p. 1068. ISBN 0-02-865997-X. Archived from the original on 2017-03-02.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  27. ^ Shields, James Mark (2013). "Political Interpretations of the Lotus Sūtra" (PDF). In Emmanuel, Steven M. (ed.). A companion to Buddhist philosophy. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 512, 514. ISBN 978-0-470-65877-2.
  28. ^ Hsieh, Ding-hwa (2009). "Buddhism, Pure Land". In Cheng, Linsun; Brown, Kerry (eds.). Berkshire encyclopedia of China. Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing Group. pp. 236–7. ISBN 978-0-9770159-4-8.
  29. ^ Green 2013, p. 123.
  30. ^ Green 2013, pp. 122–3.
  31. ^ Harvey 2013, pp. 230, 255.
  32. ^ Hudson, Clarke (2005). "Buddhist meditation: East Asian Buddhist meditation" (PDF). In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of religion. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Thomson Gale. p. 1294. ISBN 0-02-865997-X. Archived from the original on 2017-03-02.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  33. ^ Conze, Edward (2003) [1951]. Buddhism, its essence and development. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. p. 158. ISBN 0-486-43095-2. Archived from the original on 2017-11-22. Retrieved 2017-11-20.
  34. ^ Dobbins, James C. (2002). Jodo Shinshu: Shin Buddhism in medieval Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 34–5. ISBN 0-8248-2620-5.
  35. ^ Harvey 2013, pp. 378, 429, 444.
  36. ^ Gombrich, Richard F. (2006). Theravāda Buddhism: a social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo (PDF) (2nd ed.). London [u.a.]: Routledge. pp. 196–7. ISBN 0-415-36508-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-11-17. Retrieved 2017-11-20.
  37. ^ Ahn, Juhn (2004). "Popular conceptions of Zen" (PDF). In Buswell, Robert E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. New York [u.a.]: Macmillan Reference USA, Thomson Gale. p. 924. ISBN 0-02-865720-9.
  38. ^ Dore, Bhavya (1 October 2016). "Rising caste-related violence pushes many Indians to new faith". Houston Chronicle. Religion News Service. Hearst Newspapers. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
  39. ^ "Strong's Greek: 4102. πίστις (pistis) – faith, faithfulness". biblehub.com. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  40. ^ Wilkin, Robert N. (2012). The Ten Most Misunderstood Words in the Bible. Corinth, TX: GES. p. 221.
  41. ^ "SUMMA THEOLOGIAE: Faith (Secunda Secundae Partis, Q. 1)". www.newadvent.org.
  42. ^ "(PDF) Jeremy Myers, The Gospel Under Siege: 3 Views on the Relationship Between Faith and Good Works" (PDF).
  43. ^ Lawler, Ronald David; Wuerl, Donald W.; Lawler, Thomas Comerford, eds. (1991) [1976]. The Teaching of Christ: A Catholic Catechism for Adults. Volume 850 of O[ur] S[unday] V[isitor] (3 ed.). Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor Pub. Division. p. 2. ISBN 9780879738501. Retrieved 28 October 2021. [...] the conviction that the faith is not a conclusion from academic researches and human reflections but a 'given,' no static 'deposit of the faith,' but a dynamic message given by God Himself through Christ to the church, to be lived not in a departmentalized fashion but integrally [...].
  44. ^ Wuerl, Donald W. (2004). The Teaching of Christ: A Catholic Catechism for Adults, Edition: 5, revised. Huntingdon, IN: Our Sunday Visitor Pub. Division. p. 238. ISBN 1-59276-094-5. Retrieved 21 April 2009.[dead link]
  45. ^ Migliore, Daniel L. 2004. Faith seeking understanding: an introduction to Christian theology. Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans. pp. 3–8.
  46. ^ Inbody, Tyron. 2005. The faith of the Christian church: an introduction to theology. Grand Rapids, Mich: William B. Eerdmans Pub. pp. 1–10
  47. ^ Thomas, Robert L.; Editor, General (1981). New American standard exhaustive concordance of the Bible. Nashville, Tenn.: A.J. Holman. pp. 1674–75. ISBN 0-87981-197-8. {{cite book}}: |last2= has generic name (help)
  48. ^ For example: Draw Near to God: 100 Bible Verses to Deepen Your Faith. Zondervan. 2019. ISBN 9780310453888. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
  49. ^ Compare prosperity theology.
  50. ^ Compare: Weber, Max (1905). The Protestant Ethic and the 'Spirit' of Capitalism: and Other Writings. Penguin twentieth-century classics. Translated by Baehr, Peter; Wells, Gordon C. New York: Penguin (published 2002). ISBN 9781101098479. Retrieved 25 September 2019. In the course of its development, Calvinism made a positive addition: the idea of the necessity of putting one's faith to the test [Bewährung des Glaubens] in secular working life. [...] It thus provided the positive motivation [Antrieb] for asceticism, and with the firm establishment of its ethics in the doctrine of predestination, the spiritual aristocracy of the monks, who stood outside and above the world, was replaced by the spiritual aristocracy of the saints in the world, predestined by God from eternity [...].
  51. ^ Peters, Edward (1988). "The Inquisition in Literature and Art". Inquisition (reprint ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press (published 1989). p. 225. ISBN 9780520066304. Retrieved 25 September 2019. The costuming of those convicted [...] was the result of careful planning and indicated specific gradations of guilt. There was never a single, simple sanbenito, for example, but a different kind of sanbenito for different crimes and degrees of heresy, with corresponding headgear [...]. The garb of the penitents, the procession with inquisitorial banners and crosses, the careful design of the seating and sequence of the ceremony made the auto-de-fé itself 'a work of art [...]' [...]. [...] The aim of the auto-de-fé, as its name suggests, is the 'act of faith,' that is, the liturgical demonstration of the truth of the faith and the error and evil of its enemies.
  52. ^ Tanner, Norman (2009). The Ages of Faith: Popular Religion in Late Medieval England and Western Europe. Volume 56 of International Library of Historical Studies. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 161. ISBN 9781845117603. Retrieved 28 October 2021. After all, was not the Middle Ages the 'age of faith' par execellence, the time when the whole of Europe was united not only in its belief but also in a common view of society?
  53. ^ Durant, Will (2011) [1950]. The Age of Faith. Volume 4 of The Story of Civilization. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781451647617. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
  54. ^ The Norton History of Modern Europe. 1971. p. 129. Retrieved 28 October 2021. Luther attacked not the corruption of institutions but what he believed to be the corruption of faith itself.
  55. ^ Haught, James A. (2010). Fading Faith: The Rise of the Secular Age. Gustav Broukal Press. ISBN 9781578840090. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
  56. ^ Brown, Callum G (2017). Becoming Atheist: Humanism and the Secular West. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 2. ISBN 9781474224550. Retrieved 28 October 2021. By the 1990s, the liberalization of Western culture allowed the individual in most countries to be comfortably alienated from church and faith without fear of censure or social stigma [...].
  57. ^ Kalla, Krishen Lal (1989). The Mid-Victorian Literature and Loss of Faith (1 ed.). New Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 205. Retrieved 28 October 2021. In the mid-Victorian era [...] new scientific discoveries broke out giving rise to agnosticism, scepticism and atheism. All important writers of this age came under the influence of rationalism and their writings are a record of the struggle in their minds between faith and loss of faith. Some, like Swinburne and J. Thomson (B.V.) became atheists [...].
  58. ^ Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene. 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989, 198.
  59. ^ McGrath, Alister E. (2008). The Order of Things: Explorations in Scientific Theology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-4051-2556-7.
  60. ^ Robertson, Archibald Thomas. WORD PICTURES IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. pp. Chapter 17.
  61. ^ Price, Thomas (9 November 2007). "Faith is about 'just trusting' God isn't It?". Retrieved 23 January 2014.
  62. ^ Lennox, John (2011). Gunning for God: Why the New Atheists Are Missing the Target. United Kingdom: Lion. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-7459-5322-9.
  63. ^ "Peter S. Williams". peterswilliams.com. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  64. ^ Williams, Peter S. (2013). A Faithful Guide to Philosophy: A Christian Introduction to the Love of Wisdom. Authentic Media. pp. Chapter 1.4. ISBN 978-1-84227-811-6.
  65. ^ Allen, Michael (2009). The Christ's Faith: A Dogmatic Account. London: T&T Clark Studies in Systematic Theology. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-567-03399-4.
  66. ^ Boa, Kenneth; Robert M.Bowman (March 1, 2006). Faith Has Its Reasons: Integrative Approaches to Defending the Christian Faith. USA: IVP Books. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-8308-5648-0.
  67. ^ Plantinga, Alvin (2000). Warranted Christian Belief. USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 250, 291. ISBN 0-19-513192-4.
  68. ^ Dulles SJ, Avery Cardinal (2003). The Splendor of Faith: The Theological Vision of Pope John Paul II. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company. pp. vii–viii. ISBN 0-8245-2121-8.
  69. ^ Elwell, Walter A. (1 May 2001). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (Baker Reference Library). Baker Publishing Group. p. 1268. ISBN 9781441200303. This balance is most evident in Wesley's understanding of faith and works, justification and sanctification... Wesley, in a sermon entitled 'Justification by Faith', makes an attempt to define the term accurately. First, he states what justification is not. It is not being made actually just and righteous (that is sanctification). It is not being cleared of the accusations of Satan, nor of the law, nor even of God. We have sinned, so the accusation stands. Justification implies pardon, the forgiveness of sins...Ultimately for the true Wesleyan salvation is completed by our return to original righteousness. This is done by the work of the Holy Spirit...The Wesleyan tradition insists that grace is not contrasted with law but with the works of the law. Wesleyans remind us that Jesus came to fulfill, not destroy the law. God made us in his perfect image, and he wants that image restored. He wants to return us to a full and perfect obedience through the process of sanctification... Good works follow after justification as its inevitable fruit. Wesley insisted that Methodists who did not fulfill all righteousness deserved the hottest place in the lake of fire.
  70. ^ a b Guidebook of the Emmanuel Association of Churches. Logansport: Emmanuel Association. 2002. p. 7.
  71. ^ Smith was not the sole author: "Authorship and History of the Lectures on Faith | Religious Studies Center". rsc.byu.edu. Retrieved 2020-03-06.
  72. ^ Lectures on Faith. Archived from the original on 2018-10-08. Retrieved 2018-10-08.
  73. ^ Dahl, Larry E. Authorship and History of the Lectures on Faith. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University, Religious Studies Center. Archived from the original on 2018-10-08. Retrieved 2018-10-08.
  74. ^ See Monier-Williams, Sanskrit Dictionary, 1899.
  75. ^ Bhakti, Encyclopædia Britannica (2009)
  76. ^ Pechelis, Karen (2011). "Bhakti Traditions". In Frazier, Jessica; Flood, Gavin (eds.). The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies. Bloomsbury. pp. 107–121. ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0.
  77. ^ John Lochtefeld (2014), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing (New York), ISBN 978-0823922871, pages 98–100. Also see articles on bhaktimārga and jnanamārga.
  78. ^ Farāhī, Majmū‘ah Tafāsīr, 2nd ed. (Faran Foundation, 1998), 347.
  79. ^ Frederick M. Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 3rd ed., p. 405
  80. ^ Swartley, Keith E. (2005-11-02). Encountering the World of Islam. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830856442.
  81. ^ Q95:6 Quran 95:6
  82. ^ Muslim, Al-Jami‘ al-sahih, 22, (no. 93).
  83. ^ Q2:285 Quran 2:285
  84. ^ Q8:2 Quran 8:2
  85. ^ Q9:24 Quran 9:24
  86. ^ a b "What Is Emunah – Beyond Belief – Essentials". chabad.org. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  87. ^ Alan Segal, Paul the Convert, 1990, p. 128, "For a Jew, faith fundamentally precedes anything as well, but there is no need to distinguish between it and law. Jews perform the commandments because they are commanded by God, not because they guarantee justification. This arrangement assumes a prior faith commitment and prior act on God's part in justifying that never needs to be discussed"..."For Paul, giving up special claims to the performance of ceremonial Torah was part of his dissonance over leaving Pharisiasism and entering an apocalyptic community based on faith".."The rabbi..."felt indiviudals maintain righteousness through observing God's commandments"..."Paul"..."through faith,"...justification is something that God grants in response to faith and thought the rabbis would not disagree they did not see Torah and faith in opposition" pp. 128, 148, 175 ISBN 0-300-04527-1
  88. ^ a b Brueggemann, Walter (2002). Reverberations of faith: a theological handbook of Old Testament themes. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 76–78. ISBN 0-664-22231-5.
  89. ^ (The Torah – A Modern Commentary; Union of American Hebrew Congregations, NY 1981 by W. G. Plaut)
  90. ^ Bible: Deuteronomy 7:9
  91. ^ The 13 Principles and the Resurrection of the Dead Archived 2006-02-08 at the Wayback Machine from The Wolf Shall Lie With the Lamb, Rabbi Shmuel Boteach
  92. ^ For a wide history of this dispute see: Shapiro, Marc: The Limits of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles Reappraised (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization (Series).)
  93. ^ Bible: Genesis 12–15
  94. ^ "Sikhism: Five Articles of Faith". realsikhism.com. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  95. ^ Lewis, C.S. (2001). Mere Christianity: a revised and amplified edition, with a new introduction, of the three books, Broadcast talks, Christian behaviour, and Beyond personality. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-065292-6.
  96. ^ "Fideism". stanford.edu. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  97. ^ a b c Clark, Kelly James (2 October 2004). "Religious Epistemology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 3 November 2011. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  98. ^ James, William. "1896". New World. 5: 327–347. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  99. ^ a b Poston, Ted (10 June 2010). "Foundationalism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 3 November 2011. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  100. ^ Plantinga, Alvin; Nicholas Wolterstorff (1983). Faith and Rationality: Reason and Belief in God. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-268-00964-3.
  101. ^ Forrest, Peter (11 March 2009). "The Epistemology of Religion". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  102. ^ Plantinga, Alvin (2000). Warranted Christian Belief. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513192-4.
  103. ^ Basic, Mitchell. The Justification of Religious Belief. London: Macmillan.
  104. ^ Swinburne, Richard. The Existence of God. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  105. ^ Forrest, Peter (1996). God without the Supernatural. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801432552.
  106. ^ Swinburne, Richard. Is there a God?. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  107. ^ Lennox, John (2009). God's Undertaker: Has Science Buried God?. Lion UK.
  108. ^ Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion. Bantam Books.
  109. ^ Dawkins, Richard (January–February 1997). "Is Science a Religion?". American Humanist Association. Archived from the original on 30 October 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2008.
  110. ^ Peter Boghossian (2013). A Manual for Creating Atheists. Pitchstone Publishing. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-939578-09-9.
  111. ^ Friedrich Nietzsche, H.L. Mencken (Translator), The Anti-Christ, Chicago, Sharp Press, 1999, p. 144.

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Classic reflections on the nature of faith[edit]

The Reformation view of faith[edit]

External links[edit]

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