Chinese Communist Revolution

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Not to be confused with 1911 Revolution or Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.
See also: New Democratic Revolution
Chinese Communist Revolution
中国共产主义革命
Other Names
  • Chinese People's War of Liberation
  • 中国人民解放战争
  • National Protection War against the Communist Rebellion
  • 反共衛國戡亂戰爭
  • Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War
  • 第二次國共內戰 / 第二次国共内战
Part of the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949)
Part of the Cold War (1947–1991)
Clockwise from top left:
Date10 August 1945 – 1 October 1949[a] (4 years, 1 month and 3 weeks)
Location
China
Result
Belligerents

Supported by:
Eastern Bloc

Supported by:
Western Bloc

Commanders and leaders
Strength
  • 1,270,000 (Sep 1945)
  • 2,800,000 (Jun 1948)
  • 4,000,000 (Jun 1949)
  • 4,300,000 (Jul 1946)
  • 3,650,000 (Jun 1948)
  • 1,490,000 (Jun 1949)
Casualties and losses
250,000 in three campaigns 1.5 million in three campaigns[2]

The Chinese Communist Revolution was a period of social and political revolution in China that began after the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1945 and lasted until the Proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Militarily, this period saw the culmination of the Chinese Civil War as the People's Liberation Army decisively defeated the Republic of China Army, bringing an end to over two decades of intermittent warfare between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP, or Communists) and the Kuomintang (KMT, or Nationalists). Chiang Kai-Shek's Nationalist Government retreated to Taiwan, and as Chairman of the CCP, Mao Zedong became the leading figure in the post-Revolutionary government of mainland China.

The impact of the Chinese Communist Revolution was highly significant, both inside and outside of China. Within China, the period saw the political radicalization of the Chinese peasantry and urban working class, who came to support the CCP in large numbers. As they took control of new territory, the Communists initiated large-scale land reform and socialized much of the industry, fundamentally transforming the Chinese economy. The Communist victory had a major impact on the global balance of power: China became the second major socialist state, and, after the 1956 Sino-Soviet Split, a third force in the Cold War. The People's Republic offered direct and indirect support to communist movements around the world, and inspired the growth of Maoist parties in numerous countries. Shock at the CCP's success and fear of similar events occurring across East Asia led the United States to intervene militarily in Korea and Vietnam. To this day, the Chinese Communist Party remains the governing party of mainland China and the second-largest political party in the world.[3]

Start and End Dates[edit]

The Chinese Communist Revolution is generally considered to be the latter part of the Chinese Civil War, since it was only after the Second Sino-Japanese War that the tide turned decisively in favor of the Communists.[4] That said, it is not entirely clear when the second half of the civil war began. The earliest possible date would be the end of the Second United Front in January 1941, when Nationalist forces ambushed and destroyed the New Fourth Army. Another possible date is the surrender of Japan on August 10, 1945, which began a scramble by Communist and Nationalist forces to seize the equipment and territory left behind by the Japanese.[5] However, full-scale warfare between the two sides did not truly recommence until June 26, 1946, when Chiang Kai-Shek launched a major offensive against Communist bases in Manchuria.[6] This article concerns the political and social developments that contributed to the Revolution, as well as the military ones, so the August 1945 date is used.[7]

The exact end of the Revolution is also a bit unclear. The most common date used, and the one used here, is the Proclamation of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949.[8][9][10][11] Nonetheless, the Nationalist Government had not evacuated to Taiwan until December, and significant fighting (such as the conquest of Hainan) continued well into 1950.[12] Although it never posed a serious threat to the People's Republic, the Kuomintang Islamic insurgency continued until as late as 1958 in the provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, Xinjiang, and Yunnan.[13][14][15][16][17] Because no formal peace between the Republic of China and the People's Republic was ever negotiated, a formal conclusion to the civil war had never been reached.[18]

Causes and Background[edit]

Social factors[edit]

Historians disagree about the long and short-term factors behind the rise of Communism in China. One potential factor was the sharp inequalities that existed in Chinese society during the early twentieth century. High rent, usury, and taxes concentrated wealth into the hands of a minority of village chiefs and landlords. Historian John Peter Roberts quotes the statistic that "Ten percent of the agricultural population of China possessed as much as two-thirds of the land".[19] Periodic famines were common during both the Qing Dynasty and the later Chinese Republic. Between 1900 and the end of WWII, China experienced no less than six major famines, costing tens of millions of lives.[20][21][22][23] These historians also argue that imperialist pressure by the Western powers and the Japanese led to a "Century of Humiliation" that stoked nationalism, class consciousness, and leftism.[citation needed]

The French historian Lucien Bianco is among those who question whether imperialism and "feudalism" explain the revolution.[24] He points out that the CCP did not have great success until the Japanese invasion of China after 1937. Before the war, the peasantry was not ready for revolution; economic reasons were not enough to mobilize them. More important was nationalism: "It was the war that brought the Chinese peasantry and China to revolution; at the very least, it considerably accelerated the rise of the CCP to power."[25] The communist revolutionary movement had a doctrine, long-term objectives, and a clear political strategy that allowed it to adjust to changes in the situation. He adds that the most important aspect of the Chinese communist movement is that it was armed.[26]

Origins of the communist movement in China[edit]

Chen Duxiu's journal New Youth played a major role in publicizing Marxist ideas to a wider Chinese audience during the New Culture Movement of the 1910s and 20s.

In the first decade of the twentieth century, young Chinese intellectuals such as Ma Junwu, Liang Qichao, and Zhao Bizhen were the first to translate and summarize socialist and Marxist ideas into Chinese.[27][28][29][30] However, this happened on a very small scale, and had no immediate impacts. This would change following the 1911 Revolution, which saw military and popular revolts overthrow the Qing Dynasty.[31][32] The failure of the new Chinese Republic to improve social conditions or modernize the country led scholars to take a greater interest in Western ideas such as socialism.[33][34][35] The New Culture Movement was especially strong in cities like Shanghai, where Chen Duxiu began to publish the left-leaning journal New Youth in 1915.[27] New Youth quickly became the most popular and widely distributed journal amongst the intelligentsia during this period.[36]

The May Fourth Movement radicalized the New Culture Movement. For the first time, the general urban population became involved in political demonstrations and many future Communist leaders were converted to Marxism.

In May 1919, news reached China that the Versailles Peace Conference had decided to give German-occupied province of Shandong to Japan rather than returning it to China.[37] The Chinese public saw this not only as a betrayal by the Western allies, but also as a failure by the Chinese Republican government to properly defend the country against imperialism.[38] In what became known as the May Fourth Movement, large protests erupted in major cities across China. Although led by students, these protests were significant because they included the first mass participation by those outside the traditional intellectual and cultural elites.[39][40] Mao Zedong later reflected that the May Fourth Movement "marked a new stage in China's bourgeois-democratic revolution against imperialism and feudalism...a powerful camp made its appearance in the bourgeois-democratic revolution, a camp consisting of the working class, the student masses and the new national bourgeoisie."[41] Many political, and social leaders of the next five decades emerged at this time, including those of the Chinese Communist Party.[42]

Many of the May Fourth protests were led and organized by students, who had become increasingly radical in the past few years. The October Revolution in Russia had inspired many of them to join study groups centered on Marxist theory.[43][44] The Soviet Union offered a unique and compelling model of modernization and revolutionary social change in semi-colonial nation.[45] One of the most influential study groups was led by Li Dazhao, head librarian at Peking University.[46] His study group included Mao Zedong and Chen Duxiu, the latter of who was now working as dean at the university.[47] As the editor of New Youth, Chen used his journal to publish a series of Marxist articles, including an entire issue devoted to the subject in 1919.[27][48][49] By 1920, Li and Chen had fully converted to Marxism, and Li founded the Peking Socialist Youth Corps in Beijing.[50][51] Chen had moved back to Shanghai, where he also founded a small Communist group.[52]

Foundation and early history of the Chinese Communist Party[edit]

Location of the 1st Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in July 1921, on Xintiandi, former French Concession, Shanghai.

By 1920, "skepticism about [study groups'] suitability as vehicles for reform had become widespread."[53] Instead, most Chinese Marxists had determined to follow the Leninist model, which they understood as organizing a vanguard party around a core group of professional revolutionaries.[54][55] The Chinese Communist Party was founded on 23 July 1921 in Shanghai, at the 1st National Congress of the CCP.[56][57][58] The dozen delegates resolved to affiliate with the Comintern, although the CCP would only formally become a member at its second congress.[58] Chen was elected in absentia to be the first General Secretary.[52][58]

Shanghai workers posing with weapons in 1927. After successfully ousting the Zhili Clique and handing the city over to the Kuomintang, the Communist-allied workers were massacred.

The Chinese Communist Party grew slowly in its first few years.[59] The party had 50 members at the beginning of 1921, 200 in 1922, and 2,428 in 1925.[60][61][62] In contrast, the nationalist party of China, the Kuomintang or KMT, had 50,000 members already in 1923.[63] During these early years, the CPC was also beset by disagreements over strategy. At the Third Party Congress, the Comintern gave CPC members instructions to disband and join the KMT as individuals, with the object of supporting the bourgeois revolution.[54][64] This was in line with the "two-stage theory" of revolution, which postulated that "feudal" societies such as China's needed to undergo a period of capitalist development before they could experience a successful socialist revolution. Although the CPC did agree to allow members to join the KMT, it did not disband. This was the basis of the First United Front with the KMT, which in effect turned the CPC into the left-wing of the larger party.[65] KMT leader Sun Yat-Sen supported this move, and even attempted to appeal to the Communists by calling his principal of livelihood "a form of communism".[66]

Relations between the CCP and the rest of the KMT soured after Sun's death in 1925. He was succeeded by the right-wing Chiang Kai-shek, who expelled the Communists from the KMT government in Guangzhou.[67][68] Yet the two years following Sun's death were also a period of rapid growth for the communist movement. The May Thirtieth Movement responding to police violence radicalized labor unions in Shanghai and other cities, catapulting CCP membership to over 20,000.[69][70][71][72] In Wuhan, sympathetic KMT member Wang Jingwei erected a leftist government to rival Chiang Kai-Shek's.[73] In 1927, Communist leaders Zhou Enlai and Chen Duxiu launched an armed workers' uprising in Shanghai and defeated the warlord forces of the Zhili clique.[74] But when they turned the city over to the advancing forces of Chiang's Northern Expedition, the KMT leaders initiated a bloody purge of Chinese Communists and their sympathizers.[75][76] Violence spread across the country, and after Wang Jingwei broke with the Communists, the split between the KMT and CCP was solidified.[77][78]

Civil War and Chinese Soviets[edit]

Further information: Chinese Civil War and Chinese Soviet Republic
After 1927, the Communists retreated to the countryside and began a series of rural insurgencies, organized as Soviets.

In 1927, immediately after the collapse of Wang Jingwei's leftist Kuomintang government in Wuhan and Chiang Kai-shek's suppression of communists, the CCP attempted a series of uprisings and military mutinies in Nanchang and Hunan.[79][80][81] Although both saw initial success, they were unable to withstand direct pressure from the KMT's National Revolutionary Army (KMT). To Mao Zedong, this demonstrated the need for the Communists to have their own party army.[82] As the defeated Communist forces made their "Little Long March", they founded the Chinese Red Army, the first official military arm of the Chinese Communist Party.[83]

Eventually, the Communist insurgents were defeated and the CCP was forced to withdraw northwards in the Long March.

Divided, disorganized, and greatly reduced in numbers, the Communists were so close to defeat that their 6th National Party Congress was held in Moscow (and the next formal national congress would not take place until after the Second World War).[84] The near-destruction of the CCP's urban organizational apparatus led to increased centralization of power within the party, which was reorganized along more strictly Leninist lines.[85] Chen Duxiu, who had advocated for a focus on urban workers, was expelled from the party.[86] In his place, younger men such as Zhou Enlai, Zhang Wentian, and most importantly Mao Zedong rose in the ranks of the party.[85] These changes, along with a cautious military strategy that avoided open battle, allowed the CCP to slowly recover and even increase its strength during the early 1930s. The Red Army grew to over 100,000 men, and defeated the three KMT encirclement campaigns that tried to destroy them. In what became known as the revolutionary base area in the Jinggang Mountains, the CCP founded the Chinese Soviet Republic in November 1931.[87] The party itself grew to a membership of over 300,000 by early 1934.[88] But Chiang's NRA continued to grow in strength also, and by mid 1934 the situation was once again grave for the Communists. Before the fourth encirclement campaign could wipe them out, Mao and Zhou led the Communist loyalists northwards in what became known as the Long March.[89] Although the party survived, it had lost about 90% of its membership and was on the brink of destruction.[88] The Communists' new base in Yan'an might indeed have been destroyed, but the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War gave them a reprieve.[90]

Second Sino-Japanese War and the Second United Front[edit]

Further information: Second Sino-Japanese War and Second United Front
During WWII, one of the Communist units that joined the National Revolutionary Army was the Eighth Route Army, pictured here on the Great Wall.

In 1931, the Japanese army had occupied Manchuria, which had nominally been under Chinese sovereignty.[91] This triggered debates inside China on whether the Nationalist Government of Chiang Kai-Shek, the administration with the strongest claim to national leadership at the time, should declare war on Japan.[92] Chiang, despite popular disapproval, wanted to continue to focus on wiping out the Chinese Communist Party before moving on to Japan.[93][94] In 1936, two of Chiang's generals arrested him in Xi'an and forced him to form the Second United Front with the Communists against Japan.[95] In return for the ceasefire, the Communists agreed to dissolve the Red Army and place their units under National Revolutionary Army command.[96] Their embrace of guerilla warfare allowed the Communists to build secret bases in the Japanese occupied zones, which won them significant credit from the local population there.[97] As more areas came under Communist administration, they were able implement popular reforms, such as capping rent to 37.5% of the crop.[98] In the eight years of war, the CCP membership increased from 40,000 to 1,200,000 and its military forces from 30,000 to approximately one million in addition to more than one million militia support groups.[99]

The creation of the Second United Front did not end tensions between the CCP and KMT.[100] In January 1941, Chiang Kai-shek ordered Nationalist troops to ambush the CCP's New Fourth Army, one of the Communist armies that had been placed under nationalist command, for alleged insubordination.[101][102] The New Fourth Army Incident effectively ended any substantive co-operation between the Nationalists and the Communists, although open fighting between the two sides remained sporadic throughout the war.[103]

Chinese Civil War, 1945–1949[edit]

Main article: Chinese Civil War

Nationalists had an advantage in both troops and weapons, controlled a much larger territory and population, and enjoyed broad international support. The Communists were well established in the north and northwest. The best-trained Nationalist troops had been killed in early battles against the better equipped Japanese Army and in Burma, while the Communists had suffered less severe losses. The Soviet Union, though distrustful, provided aid to the Communists, and the United States assisted the Nationalists with hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of military supplies, as well as airlifting Nationalist troops from central China to Manchuria, an area Chiang Kai-shek saw as strategically vital to retake. Chiang determined to confront the PLA in Manchuria and committed his troops in one decisive battle, the Battle of Liaohsi, in the autumn of 1948. The strength of Nationalist troops in July 1946 was 4.3 million, of which 2.3 million were well-trained and ready for country-wide mobile combat.[104][105][106] However, the battle resulted in a decisive Communist victory and the Nationalists were never able to recover from it.

Result[edit]

On October 1, 1949, Chairman Mao Zedong officially proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China at Tiananmen Square. Chiang Kai-shek, 600,000 Nationalist troops and about two million Nationalist-sympathizer refugees retreated to the island of Taiwan. After that, resistance to the Communists on the mainland was substantial but scattered, such as in the far south. An attempt to take the Nationalist-controlled island of Kinmen was thwarted in the Battle of Kuningtou. In December 1949 Chiang proclaimed Taipei, Taiwan the temporary capital of the Republic, and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority of all China, while the PRC government continued to call for the unification of all China. The last direct fighting between Nationalist and Communist forces ended with the Communist capture of Hainan Island in April 1950, though shelling and guerrilla raids continued for several years. [107] In June 1950, the outbreak of the Korean War led the American government to place the United States Seventh Fleet in the Taiwan Strait to prevent either side from attacking the other.[108]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ The exact beginning and end dates are debatable. See start and end dates for more details.

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

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Sources[edit]


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