2020s in political history
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2020s political history refers to significant political and societal historical events of the 2020s, presented as a historical overview in narrative format.
Global events and issues[edit]
Major events[edit]
COVID-19 pandemic[edit]
The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic, caused by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. The World Health Organisation declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in January 2020 and a pandemic in March 2020. By December 2020 the virus had extended to virtually every corner of the planet including ships at sea but excluding Antarctica and a handful of small islands. As of 12 September 2021[1], there were 224,322,544[1] confirmed cases and 4,625,974[1] deaths. The United States, India, and Brazil reported the most infections, deaths, and recoveries; the highest death rates were reported in Belgium, Italy, Peru, and Spain. The United States leads in new cases, new deaths, active cases, and recoveries.[2]
The responses caused global social and economic disruption, including the largest global recession since the Great Depression.[3] It led to the postponement or cancellation of events, widespread supply shortages exacerbated by panic buying, famines affecting hundreds of millions of people, and decreased emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases. Educational institutions were partially or fully closed. Misinformation circulated through social media and mass media. There were incidents of xenophobia and discrimination against Chinese people and against those perceived as being Chinese or as being from areas with high infection rates.[4]
The pandemic impacted international relations and affected the political systems of multiple countries, causing suspensions of legislative activities, isolation or deaths of multiple politicians and reschedulings of elections due to fears of spreading the virus. The pandemic also triggered broader debates about political issues such as the relative advantages of democracy and autocracy,[5][6] how states respond to crises,[7] politicization of beliefs about the virus,[8] and the adequacy of existing frameworks of international cooperation.[9]
International conflict[edit]
The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, which totally bans nuclear weapons, went into effect on January 22, 2021. The treaty is not supported by NATO or any known nuclear powers.[10]
Indian border skirmishes[edit]
The 2020 China–India skirmishes have caused dozens of casualties on both sides. The 2020 India–Pakistan border skirmishes have also caused casualties, though fewer.
Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan[edit]
On 28 April, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan forces on the Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan border near Kök-Tash, Leilek, started the clashes, resulting in four deaths and dozens of injuries.[11] The following day clashes resumed, with at least 41 people killed from both sides and roughly 10,000 people evacuated.[12] The same day the foreign ministers of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan agreed to a ceasefire at the border.[13] On 30 April, Tajikistan acknowledged the ceasefire in a statement published by its state information service.[14]
Nagorno-Karabakh[edit]
The 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war took place in the Nagorno-Karabakh region between the Republic of Artsakh backed by Armenia and Azerbaijan from September 2020 to November 2020. It is the latest escalation of the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. A peace treaty was signed between Armenia, Azerbaijan, Artsakh, and Russia, ending hostilities on 10 November 2020. Widespread protests in Armenia followed the treaty while it was celebrated in Azerbaijan.
Persian Gulf[edit]
The Persian Gulf crisis (2019–present) has led to the attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad during the start of the decade, the subsequent assassination of Qasem Soleimani by the United States days later, the Iranian attack on U.S. forces in Iraq in revenge, as well as the accidental shootdown of Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 by Iran soon after.
Syria[edit]
The 2019–2020 northwestern Syria offensive, codenamed was a military operation launched by the armed forces of the Syrian Arab Republic, Russia, Iran, Hezbollah and other allied militias against Syrian opposition and allied fighters of the Syrian National Army, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, Rouse the Believers Operations Room, the Turkistan Islamic Party, and other rebel and Salafi jihadist[15] forces.[16][17]
By February 2020, pro-government forces had encircled several Turkish observation posts that had been established throughout Idlib.[18][19] On 27 February, after intermittent deadly clashes between Turkish and Syrian forces, Turkey formally intervened in the offensive and announced the beginning of Operation Spring Shield with the aim of pushing Syrian government forces back to pre-offensive frontlines.[20]
Operation Spring Shield (Turkish: Bahar Kalkanı Harekâtı) was a cross-border military operation conducted by the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) against the Syrian Armed Forces and allied militias in the Idlib Governorate of northwestern Syria,[21] which began on 27 February 2020 in response to the Balyun airstrikes.[22][23] Turkish National Defense Minister Hulusi Akar said that the purpose of the operation had been within the framework of the Astana talks, to ensure a ceasefire agreement in the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone and to prevent migration from Idlib towards the Turkish border. On 5 March, Turkey and Russia signed a ceasefire agreement in Moscow.[24]
A series of airstrikes were carried out by the Israeli Air Force on multiple Iranian-linked targets in the Deir ez-Zor Governorate of Syria on 13 January 2021.[25] More airstrikes were launched the following February. Later that same month, the United States military carried out an airstrike on a site which it believed to have been occupied by Iranian-backed Iraqi militias operating from across the border in eastern Syria.[26][27]
Environment[edit]
Climate change[edit]
In 2020, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, António Guterres, declared that "The state of the planet is broken" and that "Humanity is waging war on nature. This is suicidal."[28] The United Nations has also called climate change "the defining issue of our time",[29] and the World Health Organization said it "threatens the essential ingredients of good health - clean air, safe drinking water, nutritious food supply, and safe shelter - and has the potential to undermine decades of progress in global health".[30]
Society[edit]
Gender equality[edit]
Out of all national parliamentarians, 24.3% were women as of February 2019, while 11 women were serving as Head of State and 12 as Head of Government in June 2019. Furthermore, 20.7% of government ministers were women as of January 2019.[31] Katerina Sakellaropoulou became the first female president of Greece in January 2020.[32] Maia Sandu reached the same milestone for Moldova in 2020 as well. In Austria, the first female-majority cabinet was sworn-in in 2020.[33]
Technology[edit]
In a January 2020 interview with the Financial Times, German Chancellor Angela Merkel urged Europe to develop its own technology, such as manufacturing of batteries, electric cars, and cloud computing. Europe depends mostly on Asia for electric car batteries, and it has no hyperscale computing companies to support companies like Amazon and Facebook.[34]
Switzerland's neutrality was called into question when it was in revealed in February 2020 that German and U.S. intelligence services had been using coding devices manufactured by Crypto AG to spy on other countries.[35]
Economy[edit]
Recession[edit]
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The COVID-19 recession is an ongoing global economic recession in direct result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The recession has been the worst global economic crisis since the Great Depression. So far, the recession has lasted one year and six months worldwide, beginning in February 2020.
Following a global economic slowdown during 2019 that saw stagnation of stock markets and consumer activity, the COVID-19 lockdowns and other precautions taken during the COVID-19 pandemic threw the global economy into crisis.[36][37][38] Within seven months, every advanced economy had fallen to recession or depression, while all emerging economies were in recession.[39][40] Modeling by the World Bank suggests that, in some regions, a full recovery will not be achieved until 2025 or beyond.[41][42][43][44]
The first major sign of recession was the 2020 stock market crash, which saw major indices drop 20 to 30% in late February and March. Recovery began in early April 2020,[45] and many market indices recovered or even set new records by late 2020.[46][47][48]
The recession has seen unusually high and rapid increases in unemployment in many countries. By October 2020, more than 10 million unemployment cases had been filed in the United States,[49] swamping state-funded unemployment insurance computer systems and processes.[50][51] The United Nations (UN) predicted in April 2020 that global unemployment will wipe out 6.7% of working hours globally in the second quarter of 2020—equivalent to 195 million full-time workers.[52] In some countries, unemployment is expected to be at around 10%, with more severely affected nations from the COVID-19 pandemic having higher unemployment rates.[53][54][55] Developing countries were also being affected by a drop in remittances,[56] exacerbating COVID-19 pandemic–related famines.[57]
The recession and the 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war led to a drop in the price of oil; the collapse of tourism, the hospitality industry, and the energy industry; and a downturn in consumer activity in comparison to the previous decade.[58][59][60]World trade[edit]
President Trump's trade disputes appear to be neutralizing as the President completed a phase 1 agreement with China and renegotiated NAFTA with the ratification of the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement an improved, bipartisan trade agreement. Tomasz Brodzicki of IHS Markit predicts that world merchandise trade volume will increase by 2.7% to 14.174 billion tons (US$18.870 trillion) in 2020 and by 5% to 14.881 billion tons (US$19.795 trillion) in 2021. He forecasts the highest growth rates in 2020 for South and North America and the lowest for Africa. He predicts low trade growth for the U.S. and Canada and continuing conflicts with China, which should benefit Taiwan, Vietnam, and other parts of the ASEAN Free Trade Area. He also says the paralysis of the multilateral dispute settlement system in the World Trade Organization (WTO) will probably last.[61]
The world's largest free trade agreement, the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, was signed on November 15, 2020, including the members of ASEAN, as well as Australia, China, Japan, New Zealand, and South Korea.[62]
The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCTA) will go fully into effect on July 1, 2020, abolishing 90% of tariffs between member states and bringing a 50% increase in trade in the next few years.[63] In June 2019 the Mercosur (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay) reached a tentative agreement.pdf with the European Union. They are also looking forward to similar agreements with the United States, Canada, and the EFTA bloc—made up of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland.[64]
History by region[edit]
Asia[edit]
Afghanistan[edit]
On February 29, 2020, the United States and the Taliban signed a peace agreement in Doha, Qatar, officially titled the Agreement for Bringing Peace to Afghanistan.[65] The provisions of the deal include the withdrawal of all American and NATO troops from Afghanistan, a Taliban pledge to prevent al-Qaeda from operating in areas under Taliban control, and talks between the Taliban and the Afghan government.[66] The United States agreed to an initial reduction of its force level from 13,000 to 8,600 by July 2020, followed by a full withdrawal within 14 months if the Taliban keeps its commitments.[67] The deal was supported by China, Russia and Pakistan, although it did not involve the government of Afghanistan.[68] In September 2020, over 5,000 Taliban prisoners, including 400 of whom were accused and convicted of major crimes such as murder, were released by the Afghan government as part of the Doha Agreement between the United States and the Taliban.[69] According to Afghanistan's National Security Council, many of the released prisoners who were "experts" returned to the battlefield and strengthened the Taliban's hand.[70]
In early 2021, both the Pentagon and Afghan leadership believed in a continuous US support for Kabul. However, President Biden continuing President Trump's persistent will to move the US away from an endless foreign war, while Afghan leadership consistently relied on the US' manpower and support, was not anticipated.[71] The Biden administration announced in April 2021 that it would continue the withdrawal beyond the initial deadline, with an expected completion date by 11 September 2021.[72] On 8 July, Biden shifted the U.S. withdrawal deadline to 31 August.[73] The Taliban and allied militant groups began a widespread offensive on 1 May 2021, simultaneous with the withdrawal of most U.S. troops from Afghanistan. Following its rapid defeat across the country, the Afghan National Army was left in chaos, and only two units remained operational by mid-August: The 201st Corps and 111th Division, both based in Kabul. The capital city itself was left encircled after Taliban forces had captured Mihtarlam, Sharana, Gardez, Asadabad, and other cities as well as districts in the east. Kabul, the capital city, fell to Taliban forces on 15 August 2021. The capture took place hours after President Ashraf Ghani fled the country.
Large-scale evacuations of foreign citizens and some vulnerable Afghan citizens took place amid the withdrawal of US and NATO forces from the War in Afghanistan and the Taliban offensive in Afghanistan in 2021. After the fall of Kabul on 15 August 2021 and the collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai International Airport remained the only non-Taliban controlled route out of the country, being protected by several thousand NATO troops. The evacuation operations were one of the largest airlifts in history.[74][75] Between 14 and 25 August, the US evacuated about 82,300 people from Hamid Karzai International Airport,[76] including US citizens, Special Immigrant Visa applicants, and other vulnerable Afghans.[75] Over 122,000 people were airlifted abroad.[77]
On 17 August 2021, Amrullah Saleh—citing provisions of the Constitution of Afghanistan—declared himself President of Afghanistan from a base of operations in the Panjshir Valley, and said that he would continue military operations against the Taliban from there.[78] His claim to the presidency was endorsed by Massoud and former Afghan Minister of Defence Bismillah Mohammadi along with the Afghan embassy in Tajikistan and its ambassador Mohammad Zahir Aghbar.[79][78][80] On 6 September, the Taliban claimed victory, controlling the province. The National Resistance Front of Afghanistan, however, denied the victory, stating that they are still "all over the valley".[81] The 2021 Afghan protests were protests against the Taliban that started on 17 August 2021 against the treatment of women by the Taliban government, considering it as discriminatory and misogynistic. As led by the NRF, the protesters also support decentralization, multiculturalism, and social justice.[82]
China[edit]
Chinese Communist Party (CCP) continued the mass imprisonment of Uyghyrs in the Xinjiang internment camps, under CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping's administration.[83]
Hong Kong[edit]
The Hong Kong protests against the Chinese government continued into 2020. A controversial new national security law was enacted on 30 June 2020 by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.[84] In July, 12 politicians were banned from standing the upcoming elections.[85] The elections were then postponed by a year, officially due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[85] After the arrest of eight opposition politicians in November, 15 other opposition lawmakers resigned in protest, including the remaining opposition members of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong.[85] The democracy activist Joshua Wong was also arrested, facing up to three years in prison in his trial.[86]
The Decision of the National People's Congress on Improving the Electoral System of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region was enacted on 11 March 2021 by the National People's Congress (NPC), the de jure legislative body of the People's Republic of China (PRC), to rewrite the electoral rules, imposing a much restrictive electoral system on the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) for its Chief Executive (CE) and the Legislative Council (LegCo), claiming to ensure a system of "patriots governing Hong Kong."[87][88] Police later arrested five executives of the Apple Daily newspaper as the newspaper warned that press freedom in the city was "hanging by a thread".[89]
Japan[edit]
Following Shinzo Abe's resignation announcement in August 2020, Yoshihide Suga replaced Abe on the Liberal Democratic Party leadership, and then became Prime Minister.[90][91][92][93][94]
Kyrgyzstan[edit]
The 2020 Kyrgyzstani protests began on 5 October 2020 in response to the recent parliamentary election that was perceived by protestors as unfair, with allegations of vote rigging.[95][96] The results of the election were annulled on 6 October 2020.[97] On 12 October 2020, President Jeenbekov announced a state of emergency in the capital city of Bishkek,[98] which was approved by Parliament the following day.[99] Jeenbekov resigned on 15 October 2020.
In January 2021 a referendum on the form of government was held alongside presidential elections (won by Sadyr Japarov), with voters asked whether they would prefer a presidential system, a parliamentary system, or opposed both. Just over 84% voted in favour of a presidential system.
Work began on drafting a new constitution, which was debated in the Supreme Council in February 2021. The draft new constitution replaces the parliamentary system with a presidential one, with presidents limited to two five years terms instead of a single six-year term. It also reduces the number of seats in the Supreme Council from 120 to 90 and establishes a constitutional court.[100]
In March 2021 members of the Supreme Council passed a bill, scheduling a referendum on the new constitution for 11 April, the same day as local elections.[100] The result was 79.31% in favour.[101]
Malaysia[edit]
In early 2020, officials from the Malaysia's Prime Minister's Office (PMO) said that Malaysia has recovered US$322 million stolen from the sovereign wealth fund 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal, a fraction of the more than US$4.5 billion US prosecutors say was looted.[102] In April, the US Department of Justice returned US$300 million in funds stolen during the 1MDB scandal to Malaysia.[103][104] Former Prime Minister Najib Razak was found guilty of one count of abuse of power, three counts of criminal breach of trust, three counts of money laundering, a total of seven charges for the SRC International trial.[105][106]
On 24 February 2020, Malaysia entered the 2020 Malaysian political crisis for almost a week after the resignation of the 7th Prime Minister of Malaysia, Mahathir Mohamad. Immediately that afternoon, the King of Malaysia re-appointed Mahathir Mohamad as the Interim Prime Minister to solve the political crisis. On 29 February 2020, Yang Dipertuan Agong, King Abdullah of Pahang agreed to appoint Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin as the 8th Prime Minister of Malaysia, and he was sworn in at the Istana Negara on 1 March 2020.
Malaysia declared a State of Emergency in January 2021 amid the worsening COVID-19 pandemic, suspending parliament and all elections until August.[107] The declaration attracted political controversy;[108] a number of MPs from major coalition party UMNO withdrew support for the government in disapproval,[109] temporarily leading to a minority government and destabilising the coalition. On 8 July 2021, the President of UMNO announced that the party had withdrawn support for Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin over the government's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic[110] although others in UMNO later affirmed their support, splitting the party and putting the government's status into question.[111][112] After losing majority support and attempts to regain it were unsuccessful,[113] Prime Minister Muhyiddin and his cabinet resigned on 16 August 2021 with Muhyiddin remaining as caretaker Prime Minister. Four days later, UMNO's Vice President Ismail Sabri Yaakob was appointed Prime Minister by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong after receiving support from most of the MPs.[114][115]
Myanmar[edit]
General elections were held in Myanmar on 8 November 2020, in which the National League for Democracy won 396 out of 476 seats in parliament, while the military's proxy party, the Union Solidarity and Development Party, won only 33 seats.[116] In the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, democratically elected members of the ruling National League for Democracy were detained and/or deposed from their offices by the Tatmadaw; Myanmar's military. The Tatmadaw declared a year-long state of emergency and declared power had been vested in the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, Min Aung Hlaing. The coup d'état occurred the day before the Parliament of Myanmar was due to swear in the members elected at the November 2020 general election, preventing this from occurring.[117] President Win Myint and State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi were detained, along with ministers and their deputies and members of Parliament.[116] Domestic civil resistance efforts in Myanmar, known locally as the Spring Revolution (Burmese: နွေဦးတော်လှန်ရေး),[118][119] began in opposition to the coup d'état on 1 February.[120] As of 2 April 2021[update], at least 550 civilians, including children, have been killed by military or police forces and at least 2,574 people detained.[121]
The National Unity Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar was formed by the Committee Representing Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, a group of elected lawmakers ousted in the coup d'état. It included representatives of the National League for Democracy (the deposed ruling party of former state counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi), ethnic minority insurgent groups, and various minor parties.[122] The NUG has sought international recognition as the government of Myanmar.[123] On 5 May 2021, the NUG announced the formation of "People's Defense Force" as its armed wing to launch an armed revolution against the military junta.[124][125]
Mongolia[edit]
Parliamentary elections in June 2020[126][127] resulted in a victory for the ruling Mongolian People's Party. The Prime Minister Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh resigned on 27 January 2021 following a minor protest against the mistreatment of a hospital patient.[128]
Nepal[edit]
In July 2021, the Nepalese Supreme Court declared that the dissolution of the Federal Parliament of Nepal by Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli in May was unconstitutional, reinstating the Parliament and removing the duties of Oli.[129] The Supreme Court also designated leader of the opposition Sher Bahadur Deuba as the new Prime Minister.[129]
India[edit]
The Citizenship Amendment Act protests occurred after the enactment of the Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA) by the Indian government on 12 December 2019, which triggered widespread ongoing protests across India and abroad against the act and the associated proposals to enact a National Register of Citizens (NRC).[130] The Amendment created a pathway to Indian citizenship for illegal migrants belonging to Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian communities from Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan, who had entered India before 2014 fleeing religious persecution.[131] The Amendment does not provide the same pathway to Muslims and others from these countries, nor to refugee Sri Lankan Tamils in India, Rohingyas from Myanmar, or Buddhists from Tibet.[132] The proposed National Register of Citizens (NRC) will be an official record of all legal citizens of India; individuals would need to provide a prescribed set of documents issued before a specified cutoff date to be included in it.[133] The amendment has been widely criticised as discriminating on the basis of religion, in particular for excluding Muslims.[134] Protestors against the amendment demand that it be scrapped and that the nationwide NRC not be implemented.[135] Protesters in Assam and other northeastern states do not want Indian citizenship to be granted to any refugee or immigrant, regardless of their religion, as they fear it would alter the region's demographic balance.[136][137]
Prime Minister Narendra Modi dismissed 12 cabinet ministers, including Health Minister Harsh Vardhan, following intense criticisms over his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. Ravi Shankar Prasad, who held multiple concurrent positions as Law, Information Technology, and Communications Minister, also resigned.[138]
Indonesia[edit]
An Indonesian general was killed by West Papuan separatists in April 2021.[139]
Thailand[edit]
In Thailand, protests began in early 2020. Beginning first as demonstrations against the government of Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha, it later included the unprecedented demands for reform of the Thai monarchy. The protests were initially triggered by the dissolution of the Future Forward Party (FFP) in late February 2020 which was critical of Prayut, the changes to the Thai constitution in 2017 and the country's political landscape that it gave rise to.
Europe[edit]
The European Union reduced in member states from 28 to 27 with the exit of the United Kingdom on January 31, 2020. The response to the COVID-19 pandemic caused a rift between Northern and Southern European member states over spending, with the former demanding more stringent measures to curb overspending, while the latter argued for more financial support in order to overcome the crisis.[140] A key issue of contention was the issuing of so-called corona bonds. After a historic debt-sharing deal for economic stimulus was agreed to by the remaining countries, Hungary and Poland threatened to veto both it and the EU's budget unless a clause demanding the upholding of the rule of law by member states was dropped.[141] A compromise was reached to pass the deal, which involved delaying the implementation of the clause.[142]
Austria[edit]
The Greens became a governing party for the first time in January 2020 as part of a coalition deal with the right-wing Austrian People's Party.[143]
The 2020 Vienna attack killed four victims after a jihadist gunman attacked the country's capital. In response, the Chancellor Sebastian Kurz unveiled plans to outlaw political Islam.[144]
Belarus[edit]
The 2020 Belarusian presidential election was held on Sunday, 9 August 2020. Early voting began on 4 August and ran until 8 August.[145] Incumbent Alexander Lukashenko was reelected to the sixth term in office, with official results crediting him with 80% of the vote. Lukashenko has won every presidential election since 1994,[146] with all but the first being labelled by international monitors as neither free nor fair.[147]
Opposition candidate Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya claimed to have won a decisive first-round victory with at least 60% of the vote, and called on Lukashenko to start negotiations. Her campaign subsequently formed the Coordination Council to facilitate a transfer of power and stated that it was ready to organize "long-term protests" against the official results.[148][149] All seven members of the Coordination Council Presidium were subsequently arrested or went into exile. Numerous countries refused to accept the result of the election, as did the European Union, which imposed sanctions on Belarusian officials deemed to be responsible for "violence, repression and election fraud".[150]
The largest anti-government protests in the history of Belarus began in the lead-up to and during the election. Initially moderate, the protests intensified nationwide after official election results were announced on the night of 10 August, in which Lukashenko was declared the winner. Following the forced landing of Ryanair Flight 4978 to arrest opposition activist and journalist Roman Protasevich and his girlfriend Sofia Sapega, the European Union agreed to ban EU-based airlines from flying through Belarusian airspace, to ban Belarusian carriers from flying into EU airspace, and to implement a fresh round of sanctions.[151]
The 2021 Belarus–European Union border crisis was a migrant crisis manifested in a massive influx of Middle Eastern and African migrants (mainly from Iraq) to Lithuania, Latvia, and Poland via those countries' borders with Belarus. The crisis was triggered by the severe deterioration in Belarus–European Union relations, following the 2020 Belarusian presidential election, the 2020–2021 Belarusian protests, the Ryanair Flight 4978 incident, and the attempted repatriation of Krystsina Tsimanouskaya. The three EU nations have described the crisis as hybrid warfare by human trafficking of migrants, waged by Belarus against the European Union, and called on Brussels to intervene.[152][153]
Belgium[edit]
The foreign minister Sophie Wilmès was treated in intensive care after contracting COVID-19 in November, 2020.[154]
Bulgaria[edit]
The 2020–2021 Bulgarian protests were a series of demonstrations held in Bulgaria, mainly in the capital Sofia, as well as cities with a large Bulgarian diaspora, such as Brussels,[155] Paris,[155] Madrid,[155] Barcelona,[155] Berlin[155] and London.[155] The protest movement was the culmination of long-standing grievances against endemic corruption and state capture, particularly associated with prime minister Boyko Borisov's governments, in power since 2009.
Snap parliamentary elections were held in Bulgaria on 11 July 2021 after no party was able or willing to form a government following the April 2021 elections.[156] The populist party There Is Such a People (ITN), led by musician and television host Slavi Trifonov, narrowly won the most seats over a coalition of the conservative GERB and Union of Democratic Forces parties. ITN's success was propelled primarily by young voters.
Estonia[edit]
Kaja Kallas became the first female Prime Minister after the previous government fell after a corruption scandal.[157]
France[edit]
The murder of Samuel Paty reignited the controversy surrounding depictions of Muhammad, and was followed by the 2020 Nice stabbing committed by another jihadist, as well as a far-right attack in Avignon on the same day.[158] Before the attacks, the Charlie Hebdo depiction had been republished on September 1, and the trial over the Charlie Hebdo shooting in 2015 had begun on September 2.[159] There had also been a second attack on Charlie Hebdo's former headquarters in Paris on September 25, and on October 2, President Emmanuel Macron had called Islam a 'religion in crisis'.[159] Following Macron's remarks, the Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan suggested he needed "mental treatment", leading France to withdraw its ambassador.[160] Saudi Arabia and Iran condemned France, while tens of thousands marched against in protest in Bangladesh.[161] The French government demanded that the representative body for the religion in the country accept a 'charter of republican values', rejecting political Islam and foreign interference, as well as establishing a system of official licenses for imams.[162] Overseas, the French military intervention in the Sahel continued fighting against the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara.[163]
The former president Nicolas Sarkozy was charged with corruption in 2020.[164] Sarkozy, was found guilty in 2021 and sentenced to three years in jail for corruption.[165][166] Two years of this sentence are suspended, and one to be served in prison.[166]
Greece[edit]
Following a surge of migrant arrivals from Turkey, Greece suspended all asylum applications in March 2020.[167] The freeze was lifted a month later.[168]
The 2021 Greek protests broke out in response to a proposed government bill that would allow police presence on university campuses for the first time in decades.
Italy[edit]
During the 2021 Italian government crisis, the Conte II Cabinet fell after Matteo Renzi, leader of Italia Viva (IV) and former Prime Minister, that he would revoke IV's support to the government of Giuseppe Conte.[169] On 18 and 19 January, Renzi's party abstained and the government won the key confidence votes in the Chamber and in the Senate, but it failed in reaching an absolute majority in the Senate.[170] On 26 January, Prime Minister Conte resigned from his office, prompting President Sergio Mattarella to start consultations for the formation of a new government. On 13 February, Mario Draghi was sworn in as Prime Minister, leading to the Draghi Cabinet.[171]
Ireland[edit]
The 2020 Irish general election resulted in a historic win for the Sinn Féin, making it the second largest party of the Dáil Éireann.[172] The result was seen as a historic shift in Ireland's political landscape, effectively ending the two-party system of Fine Gael and Fianna Fáil.[173] The reason for the electoral upset for these parties was believed to be in voter dissatisfaction on issues of health, housing and homelessness.[174] Sinn Féin won 37 seats, Fianna Fáil won 38, and Fine Gael won 35.[175] Seán Ó Fearghaíl was re-elected to Ceann Comhairle at the first sitting of the 33rd Dáil on 20 February 2020.[176][177]
On 27 June 2020, Micheál Martin was elected as Taoiseach, in an historic coalition agreement that saw his party Fianna Fáil go into government with the Green Party and Fianna Fáil's historical rivals, Fine Gael. A majority of 93 members of the Dáil voted in favour of him taking the role, while 63 members voted against him.[178][179]
Lithuania[edit]
Ingrida Šimonytė became the second-ever female Prime Minister of Lithuania in 2020.
Poland[edit]
On 7 August 2020, a protest against the arrest of LGBT activist Margot led to a confrontation with police in central Warsaw and resulted in the arrest of 47 others, some of whom were peacefully protesting and others who were bystanders to the event, dubbed "Polish Stonewall" in an analogy to the 1969 Stonewall riots.
The October–December 2020 Polish protests, commonly known as the Women's Strike (Polish: Strajk Kobiet)[citation needed], are the ongoing anti-government demonstrations and protests in Poland that began on 22 October 2020, in reaction to a ruling of the Constitutional Tribunal, mainly consisting of judges who were appointed by the ruling Law and Justice (Polish: Prawo i Sprawiedliwość, PiS) dominated United Right, which tightened the law on abortion in Poland. The ruling made almost all cases of abortion illegal, including those cases in which the foetus had a severe and permanent disability, or an incurable and life-threatening disease.[180][181] It was the biggest protest in the country since the end of the People's Republic during the revolutions of 1989.[182][183]
Russia[edit]
The entire Russin cabinet resigned in January 2020, with a new Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin soon sworn in.[184] Following this, a constitutional referendum was held in Russia in 2020.[185] The draft amendments to the Constitution were submitted to a referendum in accordance with article 2 of the Law on Amendments to the Constitution.[186] The referendum was criticized for extending the rule of Vladimir Putin, as well as for not following the normal rules for referenda in Russia (by being labelled an "all-Russian vote" instead).[187][188]
The anti-corruption activist and politician Alexei Navalny was the target of an attempted assassination by the Russian Federal Security Service, whose members involved in the attempt he exposed together with the investigative journalism outlet Bellingcat.[189] Following his return to Russia, he was arrested and immediately placed in pre-trial detention.[190] This, and the release of his film A Palace for Putin, led to the 2021 Russian protests. Navalny was ultimately sentenced to two-and-a-half years in a penal colony.[191] A court ordered the Anti-Corruption Foundation, linked to Navalny, to cease its activities.[192]
Serbia[edit]
On 7 July 2020, a series of protests and riots began over the government announcement of the reimplementation of the curfew and the government's allegedly poor handling of the COVID-19 situation, as well as being a partial continuation of the "One of Five Million" movement. The initial demand of the protesters had been to cancel the planned reintroduction of curfew in Serbia during July, which was successfully achieved in less than 48 hours of the protest.[193] Among other causes, the protests were driven by the crisis of democratic institutions under Aleksandar Vučić's rule and the growing concern that the President is concentrating all powers in his hands at the expense of the parliament.[194]
Slovenia[edit]
A series of protests broke out after the formation of Janez Janša's government in early 2020, with protestors demanding Janša's resignation and early elections.[195]
Janez Janša has been accused of eroding freedom of media since assuming office. According to a report by International Press Institute Slovenia has experienced a swift downturn in media and press freedom. IPI accused Janša of creating a hostile environment for journalists by his tweets, which IPI described as "vitriolic attacks".[196][197] He has also been accused of usurping power and corruption and is often compared to Viktor Orbán.[198][199]
Sweden[edit]
A government crisis started on 21 June 2021 in Sweden after the Riksdag ousted Prime Minister Stefan Löfven with a no-confidence vote.[200][201] This was the first time in Swedish history a Prime Minister was ousted by a no-confidence vote.[202][203] Löfven was narrowly re-elected to stay in power later.[204]
United Kingdom[edit]
Under Boris Johnson's government, the UK left the EU on 31 January 2020; trade deal negotiations continued to within days of the scheduled end of the transition period on 31 December 2020 CET. The effects of Brexit will in part be determined by the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement which was agreed on 24 December 2020 and ratified by the UK Parliament on 30 December 2020 and was "provisionally" applied by the EU from 31 December 2020.[205]
Loyalists and unionists argued that post-Brexit trading arrangements have created barriers between Northern Ireland and the rest of the United Kingdom.[206] The Loyalist Communities Council, which represents paramilitary groups including the Ulster Volunteer Force and the Ulster Defence Association withdrew their support for the Good Friday Agreement (which brought to an end The Troubles) until the sea border is removed.[207] A series of riots in loyalist areas of Northern Ireland began in Waterside, Derry, on 30 March 2021. First Minister Arlene Foster announced her resignation after losing the support of her Democratic Unionist Party in the aftermath of the riots.[208]
Middle East and North Africa[edit]
As a result of the Arab Spring which began in 2011, which evolved into what some considered the Arab Winter, much of the region was riven by massive instability and conflict, with the Syrian, Libyan and Yemeni Civil Wars continuing into the 2020s.. The 2018–2020 Arab protests in Algeria, Sudan, Iraq, Lebanon and Egypt were seen as a continuation of the Arab Spring.[209][210]
Armenia[edit]
Following the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement, Armenian forces were to withdraw from Armenian-occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh by 1 December. An approximately 2,000-strong Russian peacekeeping force from the Russian Ground Forces was to be deployed to the region for a minimum of five years, one of its task being protection of the Lachin corridor, which links Armenia and the Nagorno-Karabakh region. Additionally, Armenia undertook to "guarantee safety" of passage between mainland Azerbaijan and its Nakhchivan exclave via a strip of land in Armenia's Syunik Province. Russian FSB′s Border Troops would exercise control over the transport communication.[211][212][213]
Shortly after the news about the signing the ceasefire agreement broke in the early hours of 10 November, violent protests erupted in Armenia against Nikol Pashinyan, claiming he was a "traitor" for having accepted the peace deal.[214] Protesters also seized the parliament building by breaking a metal door, and pulled the President of the National Assembly of Armenia Ararat Mirzoyan from a car and beat him.[215][216] Throughout November, numerous Armenian officials resigned from their posts, including the Armenian minister of foreign affairs, Zohrab Mnatsakanyan,[217] the minister of defence, David Tonoyan,[218] head of the same ministry's military control service, Movses Hakobyan,[219] and the spokesman of Armenia's Defense Ministry, Artsrun Hovhannisyan.[220]
Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan accused Chief of the General Staff of the Armenian Armed Forces Onik Gasparyan and more than 40 other high-ranking military officers of attempting a coup after they published a statement calling for Pashinyan's resignation on 25 February 2021. Two days later Armenian President Armen Sarksyan refused the order from Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan to dismiss Onik Gasparyan, saying parts of the decree were in violation of the constitution. Pashinyan immediately resent the motion to dismiss Gasparyan to the president.[221] On 27 February, more than 15,000 protested in the capital Yerevan calling for Pashinyan to resign.[222]
Egypt[edit]
The 2020 Egyptian protests opposed the reign of Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. The 2020 Egyptian parliamentary election was criticized as being undemocratic.[223]
Iran[edit]
The 2019–2020 Iranian protests were a series of nationwide civil protests in Iran, initially caused by a 50%–200%[224][225][226] increase in fuel prices, becoming the most violent and severe anti-government unrest since the rise of Iran's Islamic Republic in 1979.[227][228][229][230] As many as 1,500 Iranian protesters were killed.[231][232] The government crackdown prompted a violent reaction from protesters who destroyed 731 government banks including Iran's central bank, nine Islamic religious centres, tore down anti-American billboards, and posters and statues of the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei as well as former leader Khomeini. Fifty government military bases were also attacked by protesters.[233][234]
In January 2020, the United States assassinated the commander of the Quds Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, general Qasem Soleimani. This led to an Iranian missile strike against bases housing US troops in Iraq five days later. As a result of expectations of a US retribution, the Iranian air defence system accidentally shot down Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, killing all 176 people on board.[235] The International Maritime Security Construct was setup by the US to prevent Iran from disrupting international shipping in the Strait of Hormuz.[236]
Israel was suspected of being behind at least five explosions and fires at Iranian nuclear sites in the summer of 2020.[237] The leading nuclear scientist of the country, Mohsen Fakhrizadeh, was assassinated on 27 November 2020, with Iran blaming Israel for the attack.[238]
The 2021 Iranian protests started on 15 July in Khuzestan in response to the water crisis, but they quickly spread to other provinces and turned political in nature, with protesters in various cities calling for the end of the current regime.[239]
Iraq[edit]
In 2020–21, demonstrations took place in Baghdad and other parts of Iraq, over popular discontent with government corruption, unemployment, poor government services, and foreign interference within Iraq. Reports said that 450 protesters had been fatally shot by security forces.[240] Major protests were based in Nasiriyah in Dhi Qar province, with hundreds of protesters arriving there from other cities.[241] New clashes erupted in Baghdad between protesters and security forces, with security forces using gunfire against protesters.[242][243][244] One march included more than 1,000 students.[245]
In March 2020, Mohammed Allawi sent a letter to the President of Iraq, stating that he had to decline to take office as Prime Minister since the Iraqi Parliament had declined to approve his cabinet.[246][247][248] Reports indicated that the crowds of protesters in Baghdad had expressed widespread opposition to Allawi.[240][249]
Mustafa Al-Kadhimi was named by President Barham Salih as prime minister-designate, the third person tapped to lead the country in just 10 weeks as it struggled to replace a government that fell last year after months of protests.[250] Kadhimi was nominated by President Barham Salih, state television reported, shortly after the previous designated prime minister, Adnan al-Zurfi, announced he was withdrawing having failed to secure enough support to pass a government.[251] After nearly six months of political negotiations, Iraq's parliament confirmed al-Kadhimi as Prime Minister of Iraq on 6 May 2020.[252] Before entering office, al-Kadhimi said his government would be a government that finds solutions to Iraq's many problems and not a crisis ridden government. He promised early elections and vowed Iraq would not be used as a battleground by other countries.[citation needed] He assumed office on the heels of major upheavals in Iraq - protests, falling oil prices, and the COVID-19 pandemic.[253]
Israel–Palestine[edit]
The 2019–2021 Israeli political crisis continued, with the fourth election within two years held in 2021.[254] The rotation government established after the third elections between the competing factions of Likud and Blue and White collapsed. In foreign relations, the country signed the Abraham Accords (also in 2020), leading to the Bahrain–Israel and Israel–United Arab Emirates normalization agreements. Sudan also announced that it would be normalizing relations with the country as did Morocco.[255] The Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu also met with Saudi Arabia's crown prince Mohammed bin Salman soon after.[256]
The 2021 Palestinian legislative election for the Palestinian Legislative Council, originally scheduled for 22 May 2021, according to a decree by President Mahmoud Abbas on 15 January 2021, was postponed.[257] President Abbas announced the postponement on 29 April 2021, "Facing this difficult situation, we decided to postpone the date of holding legislative elections until the participation of Jerusalem and its people is guaranteed," Abbas said in a speech on Palestinian TV.[258]
Mahmoud Abbas was elected President of the Palestinian National Authority on 9 January 2005 for a four-year term that ended on 9 January 2009.[259] The last elections for the Palestinian Legislative Council were held on 25 January 2006.[260] There have not been any elections either for president or for the legislature since these two elections
The 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis started on 6 May 2021, with Palestinians protesting in Jerusalem over a forthcoming decision of the Israeli Supreme Court regarding the eviction of four Palestinian families from Sheikh Jarrah, a neighbourhood of East Jerusalem.[261] The protests quickly escalated into violent confrontations between Jewish and Palestinian protesters. The following day, the major Islamic holy site and the holiest to Judaism, known as al-Aqsa Mosque compound or Temple Mount, was stormed[262] by the Israeli police using tear gas, rubber bullets and stun grenades against firecrackers and stone-throwing Palestinians.[263][264][265][266] On 10 May, two Palestinian militant groups, Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad, began firing rockets into Israel from the Gaza Strip, hitting multiple residences and a school.[267][268][269] Israel launched airstrikes against Gaza, including airstrikes targeting multiple apartment buildings, a refugee camp, and a news office building.[270][271][272][273][274]
As part of the crisis, widespread protests and riots occurred across Israel, particularly in cities with large Arab populations. In Lod, rocks were thrown at Jewish apartments and some Jewish residents were evacuated from their homes by the police. One man was seriously injured after being struck in the head by a rock. In the nearby city of Ramle, Jewish rioters threw rocks at passing vehicles.[275] On 11 May, Mayor of Lod Yair Revivio urged Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu to deploy Israel Border Police in the city, stating that the city had "completely lost control" and warning that the country was on the brink of "civil war".[276][277] Netanyahu declared a state of emergency in Lod on 11 May, marking the first time since 1966 that Israel has used emergency powers over an Arab community.[278][279] Minister of Public Security Amir Ohana announced the implementation of emergency orders.[279]
Following the unrest, Yair Lapid, leader of the Yesh Atid and opposition, informed outgoing President Reuven Rivlin that he and Yamina leader Naftali Bennett had reached a deal to form a coalition government, which would remove Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu from power.[280] Mansour Abbas, leader of the United Arab List party, agreed to join the coalition, marking the first time in Israel's history that an Arab party was to be part of the ruling government.[281] On 2 June 2021, a coalition agreement was signed between Yesh Atid, Blue and White, Yamina, the Labor Party, Yisrael Beiteinu, New Hope, Meretz, and the United Arab List.[282]
Jordan[edit]
The 2021 Jordanian coup d'état attempt was a failed military coup attempt against King Abdullah II of Jordan. The former Crown Prince Prince Hamzah bin Hussein was placed under house arrest.
Lebanon[edit]
The 2019–20 Lebanese protests continued, leading to the resignation of Prime Minister Saad Hariri, and then his successor Hassan Diab following the 2020 Beirut explosion. These events have also happened against the ongoing Lebanese liquidity crisis. Following being an interim Prime Minister, Saad Hariri resigned in July 2021 after both failing to form a new government in the past eight months and reaching an impasse with President Michel Aoun on adopting some constitutional amendments.[283]
Libya[edit]
A conference between representatives of Mediterranean Basin powers implicated in the Libyan armed conflict as well as Algeria, the Republic of Congo and major world powers took place in Berlin on 19 January 2020,[284] declaring a 55-point list of Conclusions, creating a military 5+5 GNA+LNA followup committee, and an International Follow-up Committee to monitor progress in the peace process.[285] In the intra-Libyan component of the 3-point process, the economic track was launched on 6 January 2020 in a meeting in Tunis between a diverse selection of 19 Libyan economic experts.[286] The military track of the intra-Libyan negotiations started on 3 February with the 5+5 Libyan Joint Military Commission meeting in Geneva, between 5 senior military officers selected by the GNA and 5 selected by the LNA leader Khalifa Haftar. A major aim was to negotiate detailed monitoring to strengthen the 12 January ceasefire.[287][288] The intra-Libyan political track was started on 26 February 2020 in Geneva.[289] Salamé resigned from his UNSMIL position in early March 2020.[290]
A 21 August 2020 announcement by GNA leader Fayez al-Sarraj and Aguila Saleh for the LNA declared a ceasefire, lifting of the oil blockade, the holding of parliamentary and presidential elections in March 2021, and a new joint presidential council to be guarded by a joint security force in Sirte.[291] Followup meetings took place in Montreux on 7–9 September with support from UNSMIL and the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue and, between five GNA and five House of Representatives (HoR) members on 11 September, in Bouznika. Both meetings appeared to achieve consensus.[292][293]
The three-track intra-Libyan negotiations, chaired by Stephanie Williams of UNSMIL, continued following the August ceasefire and September Montreux meeting,[294] with the political track evolving into the Libyan Political Dialogue Forum,[295] and the military track leading to a 24 October 2020 agreement on a permanent ceasefire.[296]
Morocco[edit]
In November 2020, the Polisario Front declared it had broken a 30-year truce and attacked Moroccan forces in Western Sahara as part of the Western Sahara conflict.[297]
Syria[edit]
In early 2020, there was some evidence of new positive ties between the Syrian government and the Kurdish leaders in the autonomous region of Rojava, as the Kurds asked the Syrian government for help and protection against Turkish forces who invaded that region of Syria.[298]
In June 2020, the Syrian pound underwent a dramatic collapse. The US Government stated via US Envoy James Jeffrey that the collapse would be exacerbated due to sanctions, and offered to help Assad if he agreed to meet certain conditions for political reform.[299] On 10 June, hundreds of protesters returned to the streets of Sweida for the fourth consecutive day, rallying against the collapse of the country's economy, as the Syrian pound plummeted to 3,000 to the dollar within the past week.[300] On 11 June, Prime Minister Imad Khamis was dismissed by President Bashar al-Assad, amid anti-government protests over deteriorating economic conditions.[301] The new lows for the Syrian currency, and the dramatic increase in sanctions, began to appear to raise new threats to the survival of the Assad government.[302][303][304] Analysts noted that a resolution to the current banking crisis in Lebanon might be crucial to restoring stability in Syria.[305]
Tunisia[edit]
The 2021 Tunisian political crisis began on 25 July 2021, after Tunisian President Kais Saied dismissed Prime Minister Hichem Mechichi and suspended the activities of the Assembly of the Representatives of the People by invoking emergency powers from Article 80 of the Tunisian Constitution.[306] The decisions of the president were made in response to a series of protests against the Ennahda Movement, economic hardship and spike in COVID-19 cases in Tunisia. The speaker of the Tunisian parliament and leader of the Ennahda Movement Rached Ghannouchi said the president's actions were an assault on democracy and called on his supporters to take to the streets in opposition.
Turkey[edit]
In January 2020, Turkey announced it had sent troops to Libya in order to support the National Transitional Council in the Libyan Civil War, but that they would be in non-combat duties.[307] In March 2020, Turkey started a military offensive against the Syrian Armed Forces as part of its intervention in the Syrian Civil War.[308] That same month Turkey also declared that it would no longer stop migrants from entering the European Union.[309] Turkey also supported the Azerbaijani side in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war by supplying it with Syrian mercenaries and drones.[310]
Yemen[edit]
The Yemeni Civil War is an ongoing conflict that began in 2015 between two factions: the Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi led Yemeni government and the Houthi armed movement, along with their supporters and allies. Both claim to constitute the official government of Yemen.[311]
Sub-Saharan Africa[edit]
The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCTA) went into effect on July 1, 2020, abolishing 90% of tariffs between member states and bringing a 50% increase in trade in the next few years.[63][312] The CFA franc, which has been criticized as neocolonialist, will be replaced in by the ECO, which will be less controlled by France.[313]
Chad[edit]
Presidential elections were held in Chad on 11 April 2021. Incumbent Idriss Déby, who served five consecutive terms since seizing power in the 1990 coup d'état, was running for a sixth. Déby was described as an authoritarian by several international media sources, and as "strongly entrenched". During previous elections, he forbade the citizens of Chad from making posts online, and while Chad's total ban on social media use was lifted in 2019, restrictions continue to exist.
Provisional results released on April 19 showed that incumbent president Idriss Déby won reelection with 79% of the vote.[314] However, on 20 April it was announced by the military that Déby had been killed in action while leading his country's troops in a battle against rebels calling themselves the Front for Change and Concord in Chad (FACT).[315][316]
Following president Déby's death, a body called the Transitional Military Council – led by his son Mahamat Déby Itno, dissolved the government and the legislature, and proclaimed that it would be assuming power for a period of 18 months. Thereafter, a new presidential election would be held.[317] Some political actors within Chad have labeled the installing of the transitional military government a "coup", as the constitutional provisions regarding the filling of a presidential vacancy were not followed.[318] Namely, according to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly, Haroun Kabadi, should have been named Acting President after Déby's death, and an early election called within a period of no less than 45 and no more than 90 days from the time of the vacancy.[319]
Democratic Republic of Congo[edit]
Thirty-two members of the Parliament of the Democratic Republic of the Congo died of COVID-19.[320]
Eswatini[edit]
The Prime Minister Ambrose Mandvulo Dlamini died of COVID-19 in 2020.[321]
A series of protests in Eswatini against the monarchy and for democratisation began in late June 2021. Starting as a peaceful protest on 20 June, they escalated after 25 June into violence and looting over the weekend as the government took a hardline stance against the demonstrations and prohibited the delivery of petitions.
Ethiopia[edit]
Tensions began to rise again between Ethiopia and Eritrea, after several years of efforts to negotiate peace, due to possible border disputes.[322][323][324]
After having won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2019, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed's government adopted some policies which raised some concerns about political developments in Ethiopia. Abiy dissolved the governing coalition and formed a new party, the Prosperity Party; some said the imposition of a brand-new political party was detrimental to political stability. Also, the government enacted some restrictions on some forms of expression which raised concern about standards of free speech.[325][326] Abiy's response to rebel groups has raised some concerns about undue harshness, although some others allege that he was originally too lenient.[327][328] Amnesty International raised concerns about the status of one opposition leader.[329][330] Abiy encouraged Ethiopian refugees to return home, due to improving conditions.[331]
On November 4, 2020, the Ethiopian National Defense Force launched a military intervention against the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) in the Tigray Region, which it claimed was in response to an attack on its troops.[332] This followed month of feuding between the central and regional governments over elections and funding.[332] The Tigray forces launched rockets at the airport of Asmara, capital of neighbouring Eritrea, claiming that forces from there had taken part in the offensive.[333] Amnesty International reported that a massacre had taken place in Tigray, with TPLF-affiliated forces claimed to be responsible.[334]
Theres was also another conflict ongoing in the Oromia Region.[332]
Concurrently, there were also ongoing Afar–Somali clashes between the Afar and Somali Regions of Ethiopia.[335] In October 2020, 27 people were killed. On 2 April 2021, 100 cattle herders were reportedly shot dead.[336][337] On July 24, 2021, clashes erupted in the town of Garbaiisa, the clashes killing 300 were followed by massive protests in the Somali region resulting in the only road and rail line that goes into Djibouti where 95% of Ethiopia's maritime trade goes though.[338]
Guinea[edit]
In 2020, President of Guinea Alpha Condé changed the constitution by referendum to allow himself to secure a third term, a controversial change which spurred the 2019–2020 Guinean protests. During the last year of the second term and his third term, Condé cracked down on protests and on opposition candidates, some of whom died in prison, while the government struggled to contain price increases in basic commodities.[339] On 5 September 2021, Condé was captured by the country's armed forces in a coup d'état after gunfire in the capital, Conakry. Special forces commander Mamady Doumbouya released a broadcast on state television announcing the dissolution of the constitution and government.[340]
Kenya[edit]
The Camp Simba attack by Al-Shabaab in January 2020 killed three Americans.[341]
Lesotho[edit]
On 10 January 2020, an arrest warrant was issued for First Lady Maesiah Thabane, who was wanted in connection with the 2017 murder of Lipolelo Thabane.[342] Maesaih Thabane went into hiding and Prime Minister Tom Thabane announced his intent to resign from office shortly after her arrest warrant was issued.[342] On 20 February 2020, police announced that Thabane would also be charged with murder in the case.[343]
Liberia[edit]
A constitutional referendum was held in Liberia on 8 December 2020 alongside Senate elections and two by-elections to the House of Representatives. It had been planned for 13 October, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[344] Voters were asked whether they approved of eight amendments to the constitution, voting separately on each one. The government had planned to bundle the eight amendments into three questions, with one question on amending article 28 (citizenship), one on amending articles 45, 47, 48, 49 and 50 on the terms of office of the President, Senate and House of Representatives, and one on amending article 83 to change the date of general elections and decrease the time the Elections Commission has to investigate complaints.[345] However, this was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, as article 92 requires amendments to be voted on separately.[345]
Malawi[edit]
The Constitutional Court ordered a re-run of the 2019 Malawian general election following “widespread, systematic and grave” problems with the process, leading to the 2020 Malawian presidential election.[346]
Mali[edit]
On 18 August 2020, elements of the Malian Armed Forces began a coup.[347][348] Soldiers on pick-up trucks stormed the Soundiata military base in the town of Kati, where gunfire was exchanged before weapons were distributed from the armory and senior officers arrested.[349][350] Tanks and armoured vehicles were seen on the town's streets,[351] as well as military trucks heading for the capital, Bamako.[352] The soldiers detained several government officials including the President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta who resigned and dissolved the government.[353]
The 2021 Malian coup d'état began on the night of 24 May 2021 when the Malian Army led by Vice President Assimi Goïta[354] captured President Bah N'daw,[355][356] Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Minister of Defence Souleymane Doucouré.[357] Assimi Goïta, the head of the junta that led the 2020 coup d'état, announced that N'daw and Ouane were stripped of their powers and that new elections would be held in 2022. It is the country's third coup d'état in ten years, following the 2012 and 2020 military takeovers with the latter only having happened nine months earlier. The African Union suspended the country's membership in response.[320] On July 20, a knifeman wounded President Goïta in the arm at a mosque in Bamako in an attack described as an assassination attempt.[358]
Mozambique[edit]
The insurgency in Cabo Delgado intensified with events such as the 2020 Mozambique attacks, the Mocímboa da Praia offensive in 2020 and the Battle of Palma in 2021.
Niger[edit]
The 2021 Nigerien coup attempt occurred on 31 March 2021 at around 3:00 am WAT (2:00 am UTC) after gunfire erupted in the streets of Niamey, the capital of Niger, two days before the inauguration of president-elect Mohamed Bazoum. The coup was staged by elements within the military. After it was foiled, the perpetrators were arrested.[359]
Nigeria[edit]
The End SARS movement protested the abuses committed by the Special Anti-Robbery Squad, but were met with violence which killed at least 12 people.[360]
South Africa[edit]
Former president Jacob Zuma was taken into custody after declining to testify at the Zondo Commission, an inquiry into allegations of corruption during his term as president from 2009 to 2018. The Constitutional Court reserved judgement on Zuma's application to rescind his sentence on 12 July 2021.[361][362][363]
Riots and protests took place in South Africa from Friday, 9 July 2021 until Saturday, 17th July 2021, in response to the arrest of Zuma. The riots triggered wider rioting and looting fueled by job layoffs and economic inequality worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic.[364][365] The unrest began in the province of KwaZulu-Natal on the evening of 9 July,[366] and spread to the province of Gauteng on the evening of 11 July.[367][368]
Sudan[edit]
In January 2020, progress was made in peace negotiations, in the areas of land, transitional justice and system of government issues via the Darfur track of negotiations. SRF and Sovereignty Council representatives agreed on the creation of a Special Court for Darfur to conduct investigations and trials for war crimes and crimes against humanity carried out during the War in Darfur by the al-Bashir presidency and by warlords. Two Areas negotiations with SPLM-N (al-Hilu) had progressed on six framework agreement points, after a two-week pause, but disagreement remained on SPLM-N (al-Hilu)'s requirement of a secular state in South Kordofan and Nuba Mountains and Blue Nile self-determination. On 24 January on the Two Areas track, political and security agreements, constituting a framework agreement, were signed by Hemetti on behalf of the Sovereignty Council and Ahmed El Omda Badi on behalf of SPLM-N (Agar). The agreements give legislative autonomy to South Kordofan and Blue Nile; propose solutions for the sharing of land and other resources, and aim to unify all militias and government soldiers into a single unified Sudanese military body.
On 26 January, a "final" peace agreement for the northern track, including issues of studies for new dams, compensation for people displaced by existing dams, road construction and burial of electronic and nuclear waste, was signed by Shamseldin Kabashi of the Sovereignty Council and Dahab Ibrahim of the Kush Movement.[369][370][371]
In February 2020, a new unity government was announced, to govern the entire country, with the support of all sides of the conflict.[372][373] As one part of the agreement, the current cabinet was disbanded, in order to enable more opposition members to be appointed to cabinet roles.[374][375][376][377] In March 2020, negotiators and officials on both sides of the conflict attempted to work out arrangements to facilitate the appointment of civilian governors for various regions, in concert with ongoing peace efforts.[378] The EU announced its support for the peace efforts and pledged to provide financial support of 100 million Euros.[379]
South Africa[edit]
A criminal investigation was launched against the former president Jacob Zuma after he refused co-operate with a corruption inquiry.[380]
South Sudan[edit]
The South Sudanese Civil War ended with a negotiated peace treaty. In January 2020, the Community of Sant'Egidio mediated a Rome Peace Declaration between the SSOMA and the South Sudanese government.[381] The most contentious issue delaying the formation of the unity government was whether South Sudan should keep 32 or return to 10 states. On 14 February 2020, Kiir announced South Sudan would return to 10 states in addition to three administrative areas of Abyei, Pibor, and Ruweng,[382][383] and on 22 February Riek Machar was sworn in as first vice president for the creation of the unity government, ending the civil war.[384] Disarmament campaigns led by the government has led to resistance, with clashes killing more than 100 people in two days in north-central Tonj in August 2020.[385]
Uganda[edit]
Unrest killed at least 45 people after the arrest of opposition leader Bobi Wine in the runup to the 2021 Ugandan general election.[386] In June 2021, four gunmen on a car opened fire against a convoy carrying Ugandan Minister of Transport Katumba Wamala, injuring him and killing his daughter and driver.[387]
Zambia[edit]
Zambia faces sovereign default as the first sub-Saharan African country since 2005 due to economic mismanagement by the government of Edgar Lungu, who has grown public debt from 32% to 120% and has scared off investment by seizing mines.[388] Debt servicing takes up four times more money from the budget than healthcare.[389] Much of the money is believed to have been lost to corruption.[389] The main opposition leader Hakainde Hichilema has been arrested.[388] The electoral roll has been nulled and only 30 days have been given for re-registration.[389] Comparisons have been drawn to neighbouring Zimbabwe.[389]
Americas[edit]
Argentina[edit]
In 2021, at the request of Bolivia, Argentine prosecutors filed charges against former president Mauricio Macri, security minister Patricia Bullrich, defense minister Oscar Aguad and former Argentine ambassador to Bolivia Normando Álvarez García for allegedly supporting the removal of Evo Morales from power in November 2019.[390] The Argentine government of that time was also accused of sending ammunition and weaponry to help the government of interim president Jeanine Áñez suppress protests organized by Morales's supporters.[390]
Brazil[edit]
On March 30, 2021, the commanders of all three branches of the Brazilian Armed Forces – General Edson Leal Pujol (Army), Admiral Ilques Barbosa Junior (Navy), and Brigadier Antonio Carlos Moretti Bermudez (Air Force) – announced their intention to resign from their posts. The collective resignation announcement came less than a day after the dismissal of former Defence Minister Fernando Azevedo e Silva and was allegedly a move to signal the Armed Forces' opposition to any military interference in politics.
The 2021 Brazilian protests were popular demonstrations that took place in different regions of Brazil, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Protests both supporting and opposing government happened.[391] It was also the first time when sectors linked to the two antagonistic sides, such as the left and the right, began to protest against the government over a common goal, holding caravans on January 23 and 24, 2021.[392]
Canada[edit]
In May and June 2021, the remains of hundreds of Indigenous people, including hundreds of children, were discovered near the former sites of four Canadian Indian residential schools in the provinces of Manitoba, British Columbia and Saskatchewan. In July, Inuk leader Mary Simon was appointed to be the 30th Governor General of Canada, the first Indigenous person to assume this role. Simon succeeded Chief Justice Richard Wagner, who had been acting as Administrator since the resignation of former Governor General Julie Payette in January.[393]
Chile[edit]
The 2019–20 Chilean protests demanded a new constitution, which the 2020 Chilean national plebiscite approved would be written by a constitutional convention.[394]
Colombia[edit]
The 2019–20 Colombian protests were a collection of protests that began on 21 November 2019. Hundreds of thousands of Colombians demonstrated for various reasons. Some protested against various proposed economic and political reforms proposed by the government of Iván Duque Márquez, others against the few violent protestors and in favor of the Colombian peace process, and other issues.[105] Another series of protests began in Colombia on 28 April 2021 against increased taxes and health care reform proposed by the government of President Márquez.
Cuba[edit]
At the 8th Congress of the Communist Party, Raúl Castro officially resigned as the First Secretary, the most powerful position in Cuba.[395] Cuban President Miguel Díaz-Canel was officially named First Secretary of the Communist Party following the resignation of Raúl Castro. He is the first person not of the Castro family to hold the position since the 1959 Cuban revolution.[396]
A series of protests against the Cuban government and the ruling Communist Party of Cuba began on 11 July 2021, triggered by the shortage of food and medicine and the government's response to the resurgent COVID-19 pandemic in Cuba.[397][398] The protests have been described as the largest anti-government demonstrations since the Maleconazo in 1994.[399]
Dominican Republic[edit]
In March 2020, massive protests occurred in the Dominican Republic, due to announced postponement of national elections.[400]
Ecuador[edit]
On 7 April 2020, The Criminal Court of the National Court of Justice found the former president Rafael Correa guilty of aggravated passive bribery in 2012–2016. He was sentenced to 8 years in prison in absentia for leading the corruption network that between 2012 and 2016 received "undue contributions" at to finance his political movement in exchange for awarding state contracts to businessmen along with Alexis Mera, former Judiciary Secretary of the Presidency, former Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, María de los Angeles Duarte, former congresswoman Viviana Bonilla and former Constitutional Judge and his secretary Pamela Martínez.[401][402][403][404][405][406]
General elections were held in Ecuador on 7 February 2021. Incumbent president Lenín Moreno did not seek reelection. In first round results, Andrés Arauz had a significant lead, but one not large enough to avoid a runoff with Lasso, who had narrowly beaten third-place finisher Yaku Pérez. On 11 April, Lasso defeated Arauz,[407][408][409] which some news outlets called an upset victory.[410][411]
El Salvador[edit]
in the 2020 Salvadoran political crisis on 9 February 2020, the Salvadoran President Nayib Bukele ordered 1,400 Salvadoran soldiers from the Salvadoran Army to enter the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador to coerce the approval of a loan request of 109 million dollars from the United States for Bukele's security plan for El Salvador.[412] After winning a majority in the 2021 Salvadoran legislative election, President Bukele's party Nuevas Ideas voted to sack the country's Attorney General and the five judges of the Constitutional Court.[413]
Guatemala[edit]
Alejandro Giammattei became the new president in 2020. Later in the year, the 2020 Guatemalan protests breakout in response to COVID-19 pandemic and Hurricanes Eta and Iota.
Haiti[edit]
The 2021 Haitian protests were a mass protest movement consisting of popular movement and opposition mass street demonstrations and violent protest marches across Haiti that began on 14 January in protest at president Jovenel Moïse's plan to run for one more year in power. The protests and civil unrest that paralysed Haiti hit hard. Since the 14 January protest, hundreds of thousands took part in weekly protests calling for the government to resign.[414][415][416]
President Moïse said he foiled a coup attempt to kill him and overthrow the government in February 2021; at least 23 people were arrested.[417] He was assassinated on 7 July 2021 at 1 a.m. EDT (UTC−04:00) when a group of 28 gunmen stormed his residence and opened fire.[418] First Lady Martine Moïse was also shot multiple times in the attack. Joseph Lambert, the President of the Senate, was nominated as provisional President of Haiti by a group of senators, potentially succeeding Jovenel Moïse.[419]
Honduras[edit]
In 2021, a former cartel leader testified in a New York court that he had bribed President Juan Orlando Hernández with 250,000 US dollars to prevent extradition to the United States.[420] His brother Tony Hernández was sentenced to life in prison on allegations of drug trafficking, with court documents claiming that the two had conspired to engage in "state-sponsored drug trafficking".[421]
Mexico[edit]
As the Fourth Transformation enters its second year, President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) faces challenges involving social violence (particularly drug-related and other killings),[422] corruption, major infrastructure development, universal health care,[423] and decentralization of the government.[424][425] At a news conference on January 15, 2020, journalist Jorge Ramos pointed that during AMLO's first year as president, there were more homicides than under his predecessors; Ramos asked if a change in strategy and/or personal were required. The president assured him that we would see results by December.[426]
Following several notorious cases of femicide, violence against women emerges as a priority concern. Hundreds of thousands march on March 8[427] and millions of women strike on March 9, 2020.[428]
United States[edit]
The impeachment trial of Donald Trump found him not guilty in February 2020. The 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries ended up supporting moderate Joe Biden (former Vice President to Barack Obama) as the party's nominee, over more radical choices such as Bernie Sanders or Elizabeth Warren. The presidential campaign was dominated by the issues of the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting economic fallout. A month before the election, Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg died unexpectedly, leading to the nomination and confirmation of Amy Coney Barrett as her replacement by the sitting President Trump and the Republican-held Senate. The election ended with Biden winning.
George Floyd protests[edit]
The George Floyd protests are an ongoing series of protests, lootings, riots, and demonstrations against police brutality and racism in policing. The protests began in the United States in Minneapolis on May 26, 2020,[429] following the killing of George Floyd, a 46-year-old black man, after Derek Chauvin, a white police officer, knelt on Floyd's neck for almost nine minutes during an arrest the previous day.[430]
The unrest began as local protests in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota before quickly spreading across the entire nation as well as George Floyd protests outside the United States in support of Black Lives Matter. While the majority of protests have been peaceful,[431] demonstrations in some cities descended into riots and widespread looting,[432][433] with some being marked by street skirmishes and strong police reaction, notably against some peaceful protesters and members of the media.[434] At least 200 cities imposed curfews by 3 June, while at least 27 states and Washington, D.C, activated over 74,000 National Guard personnel due to the mass unrest.[435][436][437] From the beginning of the protests to June 3, at least 11,000 people had been arrested,[438] including all four police officers involved in the arrest which led to Floyd's death.[439]
Peru[edit]
The fallout from the Odebrecht scandal and corruption investigations into opposition leader Keiko Fujimori and past presidents Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–18), Ollanta Humala (2011–16), Alejandro Toledo (2001–06), and the late Alan Garcia (1985–90 and 2006–11) continue.[440]
During the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru, President Vizcarra instituted stay-at-home orders and issued relief funds, but existing inequality, overcrowding and a largely informal economy saw Peru being heavily affected by the pandemic. As a result, Peru's gross domestic product declined thirty percent, increasing political pressure on Vizcarra's government. In September 2020, Congress opened impeachment proceedings against Vizcarra on grounds of "moral incapacity", accusing him of influence peddling after audio recordings were released by an opposition legislator, but the process did not receive enough votes to remove him from office.
On 9 November 2020, the Peruvian Congress impeached Vizcarra a second time, after declaring him "morally incompetent"; he was removed from office.[441] The President of Congress, Manuel Merino, succeeded him as President of Peru the following day.[442] Vizcarra's removal from office was seen as a coup by many Peruvians,[443] political analysts[444] and media outlets in the country,[445][446][447][448][449] resulting in the beginning of the 2020 Peruvian protests. Following the deaths of protesters, Merino resigned after only five days.[450] The new president chosen by the legislature was Francisco Sagasti, a former World Bank official characterised as a "centrist technocrat".[451]
After the 2021 Peruvian general election, runner-up Keiko Fujimori disseminated claims of electoral fraud.[452][453] Observers from the Inter-American Union of Electoral Organizations, the Organization of American States, and the Progressive International denied any instances of widespread fraud and praised the accuracy of the elections.[454][455] Rumors spread of a possible coup d'état against Castillo, if he were declared the official winner of the presidential election.[456] A letter signed by almost one-hundred retired officers of the Peruvian armed forces was written calling on current military leaders in Peru to refuse recognizing the election of Castillo into the presidency.[456] President Francisco Sagasti condemned the letter, stating: "They want to incite top commanders of the Army, Navy, and Air force to break the rule of law."[456]
On 25 June, former 2001 and 2016 presidential candidate Fernando Olivera revealed audio tapes, alleging that Vladimiro Montesinos, who was the right-hand man to former President Alberto Fujimori currently serving a prison sentence for crimes committed during the Fujimori period, was behind the attempts for Keiko Fujimori to be declared as the winner of the second round against Castillo, including through the payment of bribes to electoral officials and influencing the National Jury of Elections. The National Penitentiary Institute and Peruvian Navy announced an investigation, confirming that Montesinos made two phone calls from Callao Naval Base where he is jailed, on 10 and 23 June to unauthorised persons coordinating the effort to overturn the election.[457][458]
Venezuela[edit]
The Crisis in Venezuela and its presidential crisis continued in 2020.
On 5 January, the 2020 Venezuelan National Assembly Delegated Committee election was disputed between Luis Parra and opposition leader Juan Guaidó.[459] On 19 January, Guaidó left Venezuela and arrived in Colombia, planning to meet with Mike Pompeo, as well as traveling to Europe and the United States later.[460]
On 26 March, the Department of State declared a $15 million bounty on Nicolás Maduro, as well as $10 million each on Diosdado Cabello, Hugo Carvajal, Clíver Alcalá Cordones and Tareck El Aissami, for charges of drug trafficking and narco-terrorism.[461] Following this, Clíver Alcalá, a former general residing in Colombia, published a video claiming responsibility for a stockpile of weapons and military equipment seized in Colombia.[462] According to Alcalá, he had made a contract with Guaidó and "American advisers" in order to buy weapons to remove Maduro.[462] Alcalá did not present any evidence[462] and Guaidó rejected the allegations.[463] After wishing farewell to his family, Alcalá surrendered to US authorities on 27 March.[464]
On 3 May, eight former Venezuelan soldiers were killed and seventeen rebels were captured on 3 May, including two American security contractors, after approximately 60 men landed in Macuto and tried to invade Venezuela. The members of the naval attack force were employed as private military contractors by Silvercorp USA and the operation aimed to depose Maduro from power.[465]
Oceania[edit]
Australia[edit]
The Morrison Government announced an economic stimulus package to combat the effects of coronavirus on the economy.[466]
New Zealand[edit]
In the 2020 New Zealand general election, the governing Labour Party, led by incumbent Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern won the election in a landslide victory against the National Party, led by Judith Collins.[467] It was the first time a New Zealand political party has secured a majority government under the mixed-member proportional representation (MMP) system introduced in 1996.[468] Labour also achieved the highest percentage of the popular vote (49.1%) for any political party since the 1951 general election (where the then-National Party won 54.0% of the popular vote). Labour also achieved its third-highest ever percentage of the popular vote (49.1%) in its political history, surpassed only by its previous general election victories of 1938 (55.8%) and 1946 (51.3%).[469][circular reference] Conversely in this election, the National Party obtained the second-lowest ever percentage of the popular vote (26.79%) in its history, second only to the lowest percentage obtained in 2002 (20.93%).[469]
Samoa[edit]
A constitutional crisis began in Samoa on 22 May 2021 when the O le Ao o le Malo (Head of State) Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II issued a proclamation purporting to prevent the Legislative Assembly of Samoa from meeting in the wake of the April 2021 Samoan general election.[470] Court rulings had upheld the election results, giving a parliamentary majority to the Faʻatuatua i le Atua Samoa ua Tasi (FAST) party, led by Fiame Naomi Mataʻafa. On 24 May 2021, a makeshift ceremony was held outside of Parliament to swear in Mata'afa as prime minister. On 23 July the Court of Appeal declared that the ceremony was binding and that FAST had been the government since that date.[471][472]
Vanuatu[edit]
Gracia Shadrack, Vanuatu's speaker, declared in 2021 that the seats of the prime minister Bob Loughman, the deputy prime minister, and 16 other MPs are vacant after they boycott parliament for three days.[473] Supreme Court of Vanuatu Justice Oliver Saksak placed a stay on speaker Gracia Shadrack's vacation of the 18 seats of parliament until a court could formally consider the dispute.[474]
See also[edit]
See also
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